The small noncoding DsrA RNA is an acid resistance regulator in Escherichia coli

Involvement of OxyR and Dps in the repression of replication initiation by DsrA small RNA in Escherichia coli

Regulation of the cell cycle process is an effective measure to ensure the stability and fidelity of genetic material during the reproduction of bacteria under different stresses. The small RNA DsrA helps bacteria adapt to environments by binding to multiple targets, but its association with the cell cycle remains unclear. Detection by flow cytometry, we first found that the knockout of dsrA promoted replication initiation, and corresponding overexpression of DsrA inhibited replication initiation in Escherichia coli. The absence of the chaperone protein Hfq, the DNA replication negative regulator protein Dps, or the transcription factor OxyR, was found to cause DsrA to no longer inhibit replication initiation. Excess DsrA promotes expression of the oxyR and dps gene, whereas β-galactosidase activity assay showed that deleting oxyR limited the enhancement of dps promoter transcriptional activity by DsrA. OxyR is a known positive regulator of Dps. Our data suggests that the effect of DsrA on replication initiation requires Hfq and that the upregulation of Dps expression by OxyR in response to DsrA levels may be a potential regulatory pathway for the negative regulation of DNA replication initiation.

Bacterial battle against acidity

The Earth is home to environments characterized by low pH, including the gastrointestinal tract of vertebrates and large areas of acidic soil. Most bacteria are neutralophiles, but can survive fluctuations in pH. Herein, we review how Escherichia, Salmonella, Helicobacter, Brucella, and other acid-resistant Gram-negative bacteria adapt to acidic environments. We discuss the constitutive and inducible defense mechanisms that promote survival, including proton-consuming or ammonia-producing processes, cellular remodeling affecting membranes and chaperones, and chemotaxis. We provide insights into how Gram-negative bacteria sense environmental acidity using membrane-integrated and cytosolic pH sensors. Finally, we address in more detail the powerful proton-consuming decarboxylase systems by examining the phylogeny of their regulatory components and their collective functionality in a population.

Functions of Small Non-Coding RNAs in Salmonella–Host Interactions

Simple Summary

In the process of infecting the host, Salmonella senses and adapts to the environment within the host, breaks through the host’s defense system, and survives and multiplies in the host cell. As a class of universal regulators encoded in intergenic space, an increasing number of small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) have been found to be involved in a series of processes during Salmonella infection, and they play an important role in interactions with the host cell. In this review, we discuss how sRNAs help Salmonella resist acidic environmental stress by regulating acid resistance genes and modulate adhesion and invasion to non-phagocytic cells by regulating virulent genes such as fimbrial subunits and outer membrane proteins. In addition, sRNAs help Salmonella adapt to oxidative stress within host cells and promote survival within macrophages. Although the function of a variety of sRNAs has been studied during host–Salmonella interactions, many of sRNAs’ functions remain to be discovered.

Abstract

Salmonella species infect hosts by entering phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells, causing diverse disease symptoms, such as fever, gastroenteritis, and even death. Therefore, Salmonella has attracted much attention. Many factors are involved in pathogenesis, for example, the capsule, enterotoxins, Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs), and corresponding regulators. These factors are all traditional proteins associated with virulence and regulation. Recently, small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) have also been reported to function as critical regulators. Salmonella has become a model organism for studying sRNAs. sRNAs regulate gene expression by imperfect base-pairing with targets at the post-transcriptional level. sRNAs are involved in diverse biological processes, such as virulence, substance metabolism, and adaptation to stress environments. Although some studies have reported the crucial roles of sRNAs in regulating host–pathogen interactions, the function of sRNAs in host–Salmonella interactions has rarely been reviewed. Here, we review the functions of sRNAs during the infection of host cells by Salmonella, aiming to deepen our understanding of sRNA functions and the pathogenic mechanism of Salmonella.

Functions of small RNAs in Lactobacillus casei-Pediococcus group of lactic acid bacteria using fragment analysis

Small RNAs (sRNA) are non-cording RNAs composed of 50∼400 nt responsible for coordinating the adaption of Escherichia coli and other bacteria to changing environmental conditions, including pH and temperature. However, the role of sRNAs in lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has not yet been clarified. In this study, we used the Lactobacillus casei-Pediococcus group to evaluate the function of sRNAs in LAB, using RNA sequencing in the exponential growth phase and stationary phase to map and analyze sRNA fragments, which were categorized as Pediococcus pentosaceus and Lactobacillus paracasei. We evaluated the role of sRNAs in nutrient synthesis for cell growth in exponential growth phase and in protein and biofilm biosynthesis for cell body durability. During exponential growth, the sRNA fragments were found to be involved in the stress response in Pediococcus pentosaceus and in environmental adaption in Lactobacillus paracasei. The results suggest that the function of sRNA can be characterized from sRNA fragments using RNA sequencing during the exponential growth and stationary phases in Lactobacillus casei-Pediococcus group.

Uncovering Transcriptional Regulators and Targets of sRNAs Using an Integrative Data-Mining Approach: H-NS-Regulated RseX as a Case Study

Bacterial small RNAs (sRNAs) play a vital role in pathogenesis by enabling rapid, efficient networks of gene attenuation during infection. In recent decades, there has been a surge in the number of proposed and biochemically-confirmed sRNAs in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens. However, limited homology, network complexity, and condition specificity of sRNA has stunted complete characterization of the activity and regulation of these RNA regulators. To streamline the discovery of the expression of sRNAs, and their post-transcriptional activities, we propose an integrative in vivo data-mining approach that couples DNA protein occupancy, RNA-seq, and RNA accessibility data with motif identification and target prediction algorithms. We benchmark the approach against a subset of well-characterized E. coli sRNAs for which a degree of in vivo transcriptional regulation and post-transcriptional activity has been previously reported, finding support for known regulation in a large proportion of this sRNA set. We showcase the abilities of our method to expand understanding of sRNA RseX, a known envelope stress-linked sRNA for which a cellular role has been elusive due to a lack of native expression detection. Using the presented approach, we identify a small set of putative RseX regulators and targets for experimental investigation. These findings have allowed us to confirm native RseX expression under conditions that eliminate H-NS repression as well as uncover a post-transcriptional role of RseX in fimbrial regulation. Beyond RseX, we uncover 163 putative regulatory DNA-binding protein sites, corresponding to regulation of 62 sRNAs, that could lead to new understanding of sRNA transcription regulation. For 32 sRNAs, we also propose a subset of top targets filtered by engagement of regions that exhibit binding site accessibility behavior in vivo. We broadly anticipate that the proposed approach will be useful for sRNA-reliant network characterization in bacteria. Such investigations under pathogenesis-relevant environmental conditions will enable us to deduce complex rapid-regulation schemes that support infection.

Effects of individual base-pairs on in vivo target search and destruction kinetics of bacterial small RNA

Base-pairing interactions mediate many intermolecular target recognition events. Even a single base-pair mismatch can cause a substantial difference in activity but how such changes influence the target search kinetics in vivo is unknown. Here, we use high-throughput sequencing and quantitative super-resolution imaging to probe the mutants of bacterial small RNA, SgrS, and their regulation of ptsG mRNA target. Mutations that disrupt binding of a chaperone protein, Hfq, and are distal to the mRNA annealing region still decrease the rate of target association, k_on, and increase the dissociation rate, k_off, showing that Hfq directly facilitates sRNA-mRNA annealing in vivo. Single base-pair mismatches in the annealing region reduce k_on by 24-31% and increase k_off by 14-25%, extending the time it takes to find and destroy the target by about a third. The effects of disrupting contiguous base-pairing are much more modest than that expected from thermodynamics, suggesting that Hfq buffers base-pair disruptions.

Early termination of the Shiga toxin transcript generates a regulatory small RNA

Enterohemorrhagic E. coli is a significant human pathogen that can cause severe disease due to the release of Shiga toxins. The toxins are encoded within lysogenic bacteriophage and controlled by antitermination of the phage late promoter, P_R′. This promoter is always active, but terminated immediately downstream during lysogeny. A byproduct of antitermination regulation is transcription of a short RNA that is thought to be nonfunctional. Here we demonstrate that in Shiga toxin-encoding phages, this short RNA is a Hfq-binding regulatory small RNA. The small RNA represses toxin production threefold under lysogenic conditions and promotes high cell density growth. Lysogenic bacteriophages are highly abundant and our results suggest that antiterminated phage promoters may be a rich source of regulatory RNAs.

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli is a significant human pathogen that causes disease ranging from hemorrhagic colitis to hemolytic uremic syndrome. The latter can lead to potentially fatal renal failure and is caused by the release of Shiga toxins that are encoded within lambdoid bacteriophages. The toxins are encoded within the late transcript of the phage and are regulated by antitermination of the P_R′ late promoter during lytic induction of the phage. During lysogeny, the late transcript is prematurely terminated at t_R′ immediately downstream of P_R′, generating a short RNA that is a byproduct of antitermination regulation. We demonstrate that this short transcript binds the small RNA chaperone Hfq, and is processed into a stable 74-nt regulatory small RNA that we have termed StxS. StxS represses expression of Shiga toxin 1 under lysogenic conditions through direct interactions with the stx1AB transcript. StxS acts in trans to activate expression of the general stress response sigma factor, RpoS, through direct interactions with an activating seed sequence within the 5′ UTR. Activation of RpoS promotes high cell density growth under nutrient-limiting conditions. Many phages utilize antitermination to regulate the lytic/lysogenic switch and our results demonstrate that short RNAs generated as a byproduct of this regulation can acquire regulatory small RNA functions that modulate host fitness.

Revised role for Hfq bacterial regulator on DNA topology

Hfq is a pleiotropic regulator that mediates several aspects of bacterial RNA metabolism. The protein notably regulates translation efficiency and RNA decay in Gram-negative bacteria, usually via its interaction with small regulatory RNA. Besides these RNA-related functions, Hfq has also been described as one of the nucleoid associated proteins shaping the bacterial chromosome. Therefore, Hfq appears as a versatile nucleic acid-binding protein, which functions are probably even more numerous than those initially suggested. For instance, E. coli Hfq, and more precisely its C-terminal region (CTR), has been shown to induce DNA compaction into a condensed form. In this paper, we establish that DNA induces Hfq-CTR amyloidogenesis, resulting in a change of DNA local conformation. Furthermore, we clarify the effect of Hfq on DNA topology. Our results evidence that, even if the protein has a strong propensity to compact DNA thanks to its amyloid region, it does not affect overall DNA topology. We confirm however that hfq gene disruption influences plasmid supercoiling in vivo, indicating that the effect on DNA topology in former reports was indirect. Most likely, this effect is related to small regulatory sRNA-Hfq-based regulation of another protein that influences DNA supercoiling, possibly a nucleoid associated protein such as H-NS or Dps. Finally, we hypothesise that this indirect effect on DNA topology explains, at least partially, the previously reported effect of Hfq on plasmid replication efficiency.

Improving E. coli growth performance by manipulating small RNA expression

Efficient growth of E. coli, especially for production of recombinant proteins, has been a challenge for the biotechnological industry since the early 1970s. By employing multiple approaches, such as different media composition, various growth strategies and specific genetic manipulations, it is now possible to grow bacteria to concentrations exceeding 100 g/L and to achieve high concentrations of recombinant proteins. Although the growth conditions are carefully monitored and maintained, it is likely that during the growth process cells are exposed to periodic stress conditions, created by fluctuations in pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, glucose, and salt concentration. These stress circumstances which can occur especially in large volume bioreactors, may affect the growth and production process. In the last several years, it has been recognized that small non-coding RNAs can act as regulators of bacterial gene expression. These molecules are found to be specifically involved in E. coli response to different environmental stress conditions; but so far, have not been used for improving production strains. The review provides summary of small RNAs identified on petri dish or in shake flask culture that can potentially affect growth characteristics of E. coli grown in bioreactor. Among them MicC and MicF that are involved in response to temperature changes, RyhB that responds to iron concentration, Gady which is associated with lower pH, Sgrs that is coupled with glucose transport and OxyS that responds to oxygen concentration. The manipulation of some of these small RNAs for improving growth of E. coli in Bioreactor is described in the last part of the review. Overexpression of SgrS was associated with improved growth and reduced acetate expression, over expression of GadY improved cell growth at acidic conditions and over expression of OxyS reduced the effect of oxidative stress. One of the possible advantages of manipulating sRNAs for improving cell growth is that the modifications occur at a post-translational level. Therefore, the use of sRNAs may exert minimal effect on the overall bacterial metabolism. The elucidation of the physiological role of newly discovered sRNAs will open new possibilities for creating strains with improved growth and production capabilities.

Impact of bacterial sRNAs in stress responses

Bacterial life is harsh and involves numerous environmental and internal challenges that are perceived as stresses. Consequently, adequate responses to survive, cope with, and counteract stress conditions have evolved. In the last few decades, a class of small, non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) has been shown to be involved as key players in stress responses. This review will discuss — primarily from an enterobacterial perspective — selected stress response pathways that involve antisense-type sRNAs. These include themes of how bacteria deal with severe envelope stress, threats of DNA damage, problems with poisoning due to toxic sugar intermediates, issues of iron homeostasis, and nutrient limitation/starvation. The examples discussed highlight how stress relief can be achieved, and how sRNAs act mechanistically in regulatory circuits. For some cases, we will propose scenarios that may suggest why contributions from post-transcriptional control by sRNAs, rather than transcriptional control alone, appear to be a beneficial and universally selected feature.

Retargeting a Dual-Acting sRNA for Multiple mRNA Transcript Regulation

Multitargeting small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) represent a potentially useful tool for metabolic engineering applications. Natural multitargeting sRNAs govern bacterial gene expression by binding to the translation initiation regions of protein-coding mRNAs through base pairing. We designed an Escherichia coli based genetic system to create and assay dual-acting retargeted-sRNA variants. The variants can be assayed for coordinate translational regulation of two alternate mRNA leaders fused to independent reporter genes. Accordingly, we began with the well-characterized E. coli native DsrA sRNA. The merits of using DsrA include its well-characterized separation of function into two independently folded stem-loop domains, wherein alterations at one stem do not necessarily abolish activity at the other stem. Expression of the sRNA and each reporter mRNA was independently controlled by small inducer molecules, allowing precise quantification of the regulatory effects of each sRNA:mRNA interaction in vivo with a microtiter plate assay. Using this system, we semirationally designed DsrA variants screened in E. coli for their ability to regulate key mRNA leader sequences from the Clostridium acetobutylicum n-butanol synthesis pathway. To coordinate intervention at two points in a metabolic pathway, we created bifunctional sRNA prototypes by combining sequences from two singly retargeted DsrA variants. This approach constitutes a platform for designing sRNAs to specifically target arbitrary mRNA transcript sequences, and thus provides a generalizable tool for retargeting and characterizing multitarget sRNAs for metabolic engineering.

Identification of Genes Required for Growth of Escherichia coli MG1655 at Moderately Low pH

The survival of some pathotypes of Escherichia coli in very low pH environments like highly acidic foods and the stomach has been well documented and contributes to their success as foodborne pathogens. In contrast, the ability of E. coli to grow at moderately low pH has received less attention, although this property can be anticipated to be also very important for the safety of mildly acidic foods. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify cellular functions required for growth of the non-pathogenic strain E. coli MG1655 at low pH. First, the role of the four E. coli amino acid decarboxylase systems, which are the major cellular mechanisms allowing extreme acid survival, was investigated using mutants defective in each of the systems. Only the lysine decarboxylase (CadA) was required for low pH growth. Secondly, a screening of 8544 random transposon insertion mutants resulted in the identification of six genes affecting growth in LB broth acidified to pH 4.50 with HCl. Two of the genes, encoding the transcriptional regulator LeuO and the elongation factor P-β-lysine ligase EpmA, can be linked to CadA production. Two other genes, encoding the diadenosine tetraphosphatase ApaH and the tRNA modification GTPase MnmE, have been previously implicated in the bacterial response to stresses other than low pH. A fifth gene encodes the LPS heptosyltransferase WaaC, and its mutant has a deep rough colony phenotype, which has been linked to reduced acid tolerance in earlier work. Finally, tatC encodes a secA-independent protein translocase that exports a few dozen proteins and thus is likely to have a pleiotropic phenotype. For mnmE, apaH, epmA, and waaC, de novo in frame deletion and genetic complementation confirmed their role in low pH growth, and these deletion mutants were also affected in growth in apple juice and tomato juice. However, the mutants were not affected in survival in gastric simulation medium at pH 2.5, indicating that growth at moderately low pH and survival of extremely low pH depend mostly on different cellular functions.

Activation of the Glutamic Acid-Dependent Acid Resistance System in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) Leads to Increase of the Fatty Acid Biotransformation Activity

The biosynthesis of carboxylic acids including fatty acids from biomass is central in envisaged biorefinery concepts. The productivities are often, however, low due to product toxicity that hamper whole-cell biocatalyst performance. Here, we have investigated factors that influence the tolerance of Escherichia coli to medium chain carboxylic acid (i.e., n-heptanoic acid)-induced stress. The metabolic and genomic responses of E. coli BL21(DE3) and MG1655 grown in the presence of n-heptanoic acid indicated that the GadA/B-based glutamic acid-dependent acid resistance (GDAR) system might be critical for cellular tolerance. The GDAR system, which is responsible for scavenging intracellular protons by catalyzing decarboxylation of glutamic acid, was inactive in E. coli BL21(DE3). Activation of the GDAR system in this strain by overexpressing the rcsB and dsrA genes, of which the gene products are involved in the activation of GadE and RpoS, respectively, resulted in acid tolerance not only to HCl but also to n-heptanoic acid. Furthermore, activation of the GDAR system allowed the recombinant E. coli BL21(DE3) expressing the alcohol dehydrogenase of Micrococcus luteus and the Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase of Pseudomonas putida to reach 60% greater product concentration in the biotransformation of ricinoleic acid (i.e., 12-hydroxyoctadec-9-enoic acid (1)) into n-heptanoic acid (5) and 11-hydroxyundec-9-enoic acid (4). This study may contribute to engineering E. coli-based biocatalysts for the production of carboxylic acids from renewable biomass.

Transcriptome sequencing analysis of novel sRNAs of Kineococcus radiotolerans in response to ionizing radiation

Kineococcus radiotolerans is a Gram-positive, radio-resistant bacterium isolated from a radioactive environment. The small noncoding RNAs (sRNAs) in bacteria are reported to play roles in the immediate response to stress and/or the recovery from stress. The analysis of K. radiotolerans transcriptome sequencing results can identify these sRNAs in a genome-wide detection, using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) by the deep sequencing technique. In this study, the raw data of radiation-exposed samples (RS) and control samples (CS) were acquired separately from the sequencing platform. There were 217 common sRNA candidates in the two samples screened in the genome-wide scale by bioinformatics analysis. There were 43 differentially expressed sRNA candidates, including 28 up-regulated and 15 down-regulated ones. The down-regulated sRNAs were selected for the sRNA target prediction, of which 12 sRNAs that may modulate the genes related to the transcription regulation and DNA repair were considered as the candidates involved in the radio-resistance regulation system.

The Small RNA DsrA Influences the Acid Tolerance Response and Virulence of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium

The Gram-negative, enteropathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) is exposed to various stress conditions during pathogenesis, of which acid stress serves as a major defense mechanism in the host. Such environments are encountered in the stomach and Salmonella containing vacuole of phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells. It is only recently that small RNAs (sRNAs) have come to the forefront as major regulators of stress response networks. Consequently, the sRNA DsrA which regulates acid resistance in Escherichia coli, has not been characterized in the acid tolerance response (ATR) of Salmonella. In this study, we show dsrA to be induced two and threefold under adaptation and challenge phases of the ATR, respectively. Additionally, an isogenic mutant lacking dsrA (ΔDsrA) displayed lower viability under the ATR along with reduced motility, feeble adhesion and defective invasion efficacy in vitro. Expression analysis revealed down regulation of several Salmonella pathogenicity island-1 (SPI-1) effectors in ΔDsrA compared to the wild-type, under SPI-1 inducing conditions. Additionally, our in vivo data revealed ΔDsrA to be unable to cause gut inflammation in C57BL/6 mice at 72 h post infection, although intracellular survival and systemic dissemination remained unaffected. A possible explanation may be the significantly reduced expression of flagellin structural genes fliC and fljB in ΔDsrA, which have been implicated as major proinflammatory determinants. This study serves to highlight the role of sRNAs such as DsrA in both acid tolerance and virulence of S. Typhimurium. Additionally the robust phenotype of non-invasiveness could be exploited in developing SPI-I attenuated S. Typhimurium strains without disrupting SPI-I genes.

Target activation by regulatory RNAs in bacteria

Bacterial small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are commonly known to repress gene expression by base pairing to target mRNAs. In many cases, sRNAs base pair with and sequester mRNA ribosome-binding sites, resulting in translational repression and accelerated transcript decay. In contrast, a growing number of examples of translational activation and mRNA stabilization by sRNAs have now been documented. A given sRNA often employs a conserved region to interact with and regulate both repressed and activated targets. However, the mechanisms underlying activation differ substantially from repression. Base pairing resulting in target activation can involve sRNA interactions with the 5(') untranslated region (UTR), the coding sequence or the 3(') UTR of the target mRNAs. Frequently, the activities of protein factors such as cellular ribonucleases and the RNA chaperone Hfq are required for activation. Bacterial sRNAs, including those that function as activators, frequently control stress response pathways or virulence-associated functions required for immediate responses to changing environments. This review aims to summarize recent advances in knowledge regarding target mRNA activation by bacterial sRNAs, highlighting the molecular mechanisms and biological relevance of regulation.

NAD captureSeq indicates NAD as a bacterial cap for a subset of regulatory RNAs

A distinctive feature of prokaryotic gene expression is the absence of 5'-capped RNA. In eukaryotes, 5',5'-triphosphate-linked 7-methylguanosine protects messenger RNA from degradation and modulates maturation, localization and translation. Recently, the cofactor nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) was reported as a covalent modification of bacterial RNA. Given the central role of NAD in redox biochemistry, posttranslational protein modification and signalling, its attachment to RNA indicates that there are unknown functions of RNA in these processes and undiscovered pathways in RNA metabolism and regulation. The unknown identity of NAD-modified RNAs has so far precluded functional analyses. Here we identify NAD-linked RNAs from bacteria by chemo-enzymatic capture and next-generation sequencing (NAD captureSeq). Among those identified, specific regulatory small RNAs (sRNAs) and sRNA-like 5'-terminal fragments of certain mRNAs are particularly abundant. Analogous to a eukaryotic cap, 5'-NAD modification is shown in vitro to stabilize RNA against 5'-processing by the RNA-pyrophosphohydrolase RppH and against endonucleolytic cleavage by ribonuclease (RNase) E. The nudix phosphohydrolase NudC decaps NAD-RNA and thereby triggers RNase-E-mediated RNA decay, while being inactive against triphosphate-RNA. In vivo, ∼13% of the abundant sRNA RNAI is NAD-capped in the presence, and ∼26% in the absence, of functional NudC. To our knowledge, this is the first description of a cap-like structure and a decapping machinery in bacteria.

Quantitative effect of target translation on small RNA efficacy reveals a novel mode of interaction

Small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) in bacteria regulate many important cellular activities under normal conditions and in response to stress. Many sRNAs bind to the mRNA targets at or near the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) resulting in translation inhibition and accelerated degradation. Often the sRNA-binding site is adjacent to or overlapping with the ribosomal binding site (RBS), suggesting a possible interplay between sRNA and ribosome binding. Here we combine quantitative experiments with mathematical modeling to reveal novel features of the interaction between small RNAs and the translation machinery at the 5′UTR of a target mRNA. By measuring the response of a library of reporter targets with varied RBSs, we find that increasing translation rate can lead to increased repression. Quantitative analysis of these data suggests a recruitment model, where bound ribosomes facilitate binding of the sRNA. We experimentally verified predictions of this model for the cell-to-cell variability of target expression. Our findings offer a framework for understanding sRNA silencing in the context of bacterial physiology.

Transcription start site associated RNAs (TSSaRNAs) are ubiquitous in all domains of life

A plethora of non-coding RNAs has been discovered using high-resolution transcriptomics tools, indicating that transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation is much more complex than previously appreciated. Small RNAs associated with transcription start sites of annotated coding regions (TSSaRNAs) are pervasive in both eukaryotes and bacteria. Here, we provide evidence for existence of TSSaRNAs in several archaeal transcriptomes including: Halobacterium salinarum, Pyrococcus furiosus, Methanococcus maripaludis, and Sulfolobus solfataricus. We validated TSSaRNAs from the model archaeon Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1 by deep sequencing two independent small-RNA enriched (RNA-seq) and a primary-transcript enriched (dRNA-seq) strand-specific libraries. We identified 652 transcripts, of which 179 were shown to be primary transcripts (∼7% of the annotated genome). Distinct growth-associated expression patterns between TSSaRNAs and their cognate genes were observed, indicating a possible role in environmental responses that may result from RNA polymerase with varying pausing rhythms. This work shows that TSSaRNAs are ubiquitous across all domains of life.

Small RNAs in the control of RpoS, CsgD, and biofilm architecture of Escherichia coli

Amyloid curli fibers and cellulose are extracellular matrix components produced in the stationary phase top layer of E. coli macrocolonies, which confer physical protection, strong cohesion, elasticity, and wrinkled morphology to these biofilms. Curli and cellulose synthesis is controlled by a three-level transcription factor (TF) cascade with the RpoS sigma subunit of RNA polymerase at the top, the MerR-like TF MlrA, and the biofilm regulator CsgD, with two c-di-GMP control modules acting as key switching devices. Additional signal input and fine-tuning is provided by an entire series of small RNAs-ArcZ, DsrA, RprA, McaS, OmrA/OmrB, GcvB, and RydC--that differentially control all three TF modules by direct mRNA interaction. This review not only summarizes the mechanisms of action of these sRNAs, but also addresses the question of how these sRNAs and the regulators they target contribute to building the intriguing three-dimensional microarchitecture and macromorphology of these biofilms.

Identification of novel regulatory small RNAs in Acinetobacter baumannii

Small RNA (sRNA) molecules are non-coding RNAs that have been implicated in regulation of various cellular processes in living systems, allowing them to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Till date, sRNAs have not been reported in Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii), which has emerged as a significant multiple drug resistant nosocomial pathogen. In the present study, a combination of bioinformatic and experimental approach was used for identification of novel sRNAs. A total of 31 putative sRNAs were predicted by a combination of two algorithms, sRNAPredict and QRNA. Initially 10 sRNAs were chosen on the basis of lower E- value and three sRNAs (designated as AbsR11, 25 and 28) showed positive signal on Northern blot. These sRNAs are novel in nature as they do not have homologous sequences in other bacterial species. Expression of the three sRNAs was examined in various phases of bacterial growth. Further, the effect of various stress conditions on sRNA gene expression was determined. A detailed investigation revealed differential expression profile of AbsR25 in presence of varying amounts of ethidium bromide (EtBr), suggesting that its expression is influenced by environmental or internal signals such as stress response. A decrease in expression of AbsR25 and concomitant increase in the expression of bioinformatically predicted targets in presence of high EtBr was reverberated by the decrease in target gene expression when AbsR25 was overexpressed. This hints at the negative regulation of target genes by AbsR25. Interestingly, the putative targets include transporter genes and the degree of variation in expression of one of them (A1S_1331) suggests that AbsR25 is involved in regulation of a transporter. This study provides a perspective for future studies of sRNAs and their possible involvement in regulation of antibiotic resistance in bacteria specifically in cryptic A. baumannii.

Roles of rpoS-activating small RNAs in pathways leading to acid resistance of Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli and related enteric bacteria can survive under extreme acid stress condition at least for several hours. RpoS is a key factor for acid stress management in many enterobacteria. Although three rpoS-activating sRNAs, DsrA, RprA, and ArcZ, have been identified in E. coli, it remains unclear how these small RNA molecules participate in pathways leading to acid resistance (AR). Here, we showed that overexpression of ArcZ, DsrA, or RprA enhances AR in a RpoS-dependent manner. Mutant strains with deletion of any of three sRNA genes showed lowered AR, and deleting all three sRNA genes led to more severe defects in protecting against acid stress. Overexpression of any of the three sRNAs fully rescued the acid tolerance defects of the mutant strain lacking all three genes, suggesting that all three sRNAs perform the same function in activating RpoS required for AR. Notably, acid stress led to the induction of DsrA and RprA but not ArcZ.

A genome-wide MeSH-based literature mining system predicts implicit gene-to-gene relationships and networks

Background

The large amount of literature in the post-genomics era enables the study of gene interactions and networks using all available articles published for a specific organism. MeSH is a controlled vocabulary of medical and scientific terms that is used by biomedical scientists to manually index articles in the PubMed literature database. We hypothesized that genome-wide gene-MeSH term associations from the PubMed literature database could be used to predict implicit gene-to-gene relationships and networks. While the gene-MeSH associations have been used to detect gene-gene interactions in some studies, different methods have not been well compared, and such a strategy has not been evaluated for a genome-wide literature analysis. Genome-wide literature mining of gene-to-gene interactions allows ranking of the best gene interactions and investigation of comprehensive biological networks at a genome level.

Results

The genome-wide GenoMesh literature mining algorithm was developed by sequentially generating a gene-article matrix, a normalized gene-MeSH term matrix, and a gene-gene matrix. The gene-gene matrix relies on the calculation of pairwise gene dissimilarities based on gene-MeSH relationships. An optimized dissimilarity score was identified from six well-studied functions based on a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. Based on the studies with well-studied Escherichia coli and less-studied Brucella spp., GenoMesh was found to accurately identify gene functions using weighted MeSH terms, predict gene-gene interactions not reported in the literature, and cluster all the genes studied from an organism using the MeSH-based gene-gene matrix. A web-based GenoMesh literature mining program is also available at: http://genomesh.hegroup.org. GenoMesh also predicts gene interactions and networks among genes associated with specific MeSH terms or user-selected gene lists.

Conclusions

The GenoMesh algorithm and web program provide the first genome-wide, MeSH-based literature mining system that effectively predicts implicit gene-gene interaction relationships and networks in a genome-wide scope.

Polyamines are critical for the induction of the glutamate decarboxylase-dependent acid resistance system in Escherichia coli

As part of our studies on the biological functions of polyamines, we have used a mutant of Escherichia coli that lacks all the genes for polyamine biosynthesis for a global transcriptional analysis on the effect of added polyamines. The most striking early response to the polyamine addition is the increased expression of the genes for the glutamate-dependent acid resistance system (GDAR) that is important for the survival of the bacteria when passing through the acid environment of the stomach. Not only were the two genes for glutamate decarboxylases (gadA and gadB) and the gene for glutamate-γ-aminobutyrate antiporter (gadC) induced by the polyamine addition, but the various genes involved in the regulation of this system were also induced. We confirmed the importance of polyamines for the induction of the GDAR system by direct measurement of glutamate decarboxylase activity and acid survival. The effect of deletions of the regulatory genes on the GDAR system and the effects of overproduction of two of these genes were also studied. Strikingly, overproduction of the alternative σ factor rpoS and of the regulatory gene gadE resulted in very high levels of glutamate decarboxylase and almost complete protection against acid stress even in the absence of any polyamines. Thus, these data show that a major function of polyamines in E. coli is protection against acid stress by increasing the synthesis of glutamate decarboxylase, presumably by increasing the levels of the rpoS and gadE regulators.

Synthetic tolerance: three noncoding small RNAs, DsrA, ArcZ and RprA, acting supra-additively against acid stress

Synthetic acid tolerance, especially during active cell growth, is a desirable phenotype for many biotechnological applications. Natively, acid resistance in Escherichia coli is largely a stationary-phase phenotype attributable to mechanisms mostly under the control of the stationary-phase sigma factor RpoS. We show that simultaneous overexpression of noncoding small RNAs (sRNAs), DsrA, RprA and ArcZ, which are translational RpoS activators, increased acid tolerance (based on a low-pH survival assay) supra-additively up to 8500-fold during active cell growth, and provided protection against carboxylic acid and oxidative stress. Overexpression of rpoS without its regulatory 5'-UTR resulted in inferior acid tolerance. The supra-additive effect of overexpressing the three sRNAs results from the impact their expression has on RpoS-protein levels, and the beneficial perturbation of the interconnected RpoS and H-NS networks, thus leading to superior tolerance during active growth. Unlike the overexpression of proteins, overexpression of sRNAs imposes hardly any metabolic burden on cells, and constitutes a more effective strain engineering strategy.

Identification of target transcripts regulated by small RNA RyhB homologs in Salmonella: RyhB-2 regulates motility phenotype

Salmonella encodes numerous small RNAs that play important roles in the cellular regulatory network. Recently we have shown that two RyhB homologs of Salmonella Typhimurium, RyhB-1 and RyhB-2, have distinct sets of overlapping targets. In this study, we used microarrays for comprehensive identification of the target genes regulated by these sRNAs. Microarray analysis was conducted with cDNAs generated from total RNAs of three mutants (ΔryhB-1, ΔryhB-2, and ΔryhB-1ΔryhB-2) and wild type S. Typhimurium strain. Candidate targets were first identified by selecting genes with increased transcript signals in a double deletion strain as compared to the wild type. Then those candidates were clustered into the following 4 groups according to the patterns of increased transcript signals as compared to the wild type: (1) greater with both single deletions, (2) reduced or unchanged with both single deletions, and (3) greater only with either the ryhB-1 or (4) ryhB-2 deletion. We found that the transcripts of the three genes (flgJ, cheY, and fliF), involved in motility and chemotaxis, are down-regulated only by RyhB-2. Motility assay confirmed that the ryhB-2 deletion increased motility, which was then reduced back to wild type level by overexpression of ryhB-2 gene. Collectively, our results suggest the regulatory roles of RyhB-1 and RyhB-2 in Salmonella on multiple cellular pathways, including motility, at a post-transcriptional level.

Novel regulatory small RNAs in Streptococcus pyogenes

Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus or GAS) is a Gram-positive bacterial pathogen that has shown complex modes of regulation of its virulence factors to cause diverse diseases. Bacterial small RNAs are regarded as novel widespread regulators of gene expression in response to environmental signals. Recent studies have revealed that several small RNAs (sRNAs) have an important role in S. pyogenes physiology and pathogenesis by regulating gene expression at the translational level. To search for new sRNAs in S. pyogenes, we performed a genomewide analysis through computational prediction followed by experimental verification. To overcome the limitation of low accuracy in computational prediction, we employed a combination of three different computational algorithms (sRNAPredict, eQRNA and RNAz). A total of 45 candidates were chosen based on the computational analysis, and their transcription was analyzed by reverse-transcriptase PCR and Northern blot. Through this process, we discovered 7 putative novel trans-acting sRNAs. Their abundance varied between different growth phases, suggesting that their expression is influenced by environmental or internal signals. Further, to screen target mRNAs of an sRNA, we employed differential RNA sequencing analysis. This study provides a significant resource for future study of small RNAs and their roles in physiology and pathogenesis of S. pyogenes.

Sigma factor N, liaison to an ntrC and rpoS dependent regulatory pathway controlling acid resistance and the LEE in enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is dependent on acid resistance for gastric passage and low oral infectious dose, and the locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE) for intestinal colonization. Mutation of rpoN, encoding sigma factor N (σ(N)), dramatically alters the growth-phase dependent regulation of both acid resistance and the LEE. This study reports on the determinants of σ(N)-directed acid resistance and LEE expression, and the underlying mechanism attributable to this phenotype. Glutamate-dependent acid resistance (GDAR) in TW14359ΔrpoN correlated with increased expression of the gadX-gadW regulatory circuit during exponential growth, whereas upregulation of arginine-dependent acid resistance (ADAR) genes adiA and adiC in TW14359ΔrpoN did not confer acid resistance by the ADAR mechanism. LEE regulatory (ler), structural (espA and cesT) and effector (tir) genes were downregulated in TW14359ΔrpoN, and mutation of rpoS encoding sigma factor 38 (σ(S)) in TW14359ΔrpoN restored acid resistance and LEE genes to WT levels. Stability, but not the absolute level, of σ(S) was increased in TW14359ΔrpoN; however, increased stability was not solely attributable to the GDAR and LEE expression phenotype. Complementation of TW14359ΔrpoN with a σ(N) allele that binds RNA polymerase (RNAP) but not DNA, did not restore WT levels of σ(S) stability, gadE, ler or GDAR, indicating a dependence on transcription from a σ(N) promoter(s) and not RNAP competition for the phenotype. Among a library of σ(N) enhancer binding protein mutants, only TW14359ΔntrC, inactivated for nitrogen regulatory protein NtrC, phenocopied TW14359ΔrpoN for σ(S) stability, GDAR and ler expression. The results of this study suggest that during exponential growth, NtrC-σ(N) regulate GDAR and LEE expression through downregulation of σ(S) at the post-translational level; likely by altering σ(S) stability or activity. The regulatory interplay between NtrC, other EBPs, and σ(N)-σ(S), represents a mechanism by which EHEC can coordinate GDAR, LEE expression and other cellular functions, with nitrogen availability and physiologic stimuli.

Significant rewiring of the transcriptome and proteome of an Escherichia coli strain harboring a tailored exogenous global regulator IrrE

Cell reprogramming for microorganisms via engineered or artificial transcription factors and RNA polymerase mutants has presented a powerful tool for eliciting complex traits that are practically useful particularly for industrial strains, and for understanding at the global level the regulatory network of gene transcription. We previously further showed that an exogenous global regulator IrrE (derived from the extreme radiation-resistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans) can be tailored to confer Escherichia coli (E. coli) with significantly enhanced tolerances to different stresses. In this work, based on comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of the representative strains E1 and E0, harboring the ethanol-tolerant IrrE mutant E1 and the ethanol-intolerant wild type IrrE, respectively, we found that the transcriptome and proteome of E. coli were extensively rewired by the tailored IrrE protein. Overall, 1196 genes (or approximately 27% of E. coli genes) were significantly altered at the transcriptomic level, including notably genes in the nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide (NO) pathway, and genes for non-coding RNAs. The proteomic profile revealed significant up- or downregulation of several proteins associated with syntheses of the cell membrane and cell wall. Analyses of the intracellular NO level and cell growth under reduced temperature supported a close correlation between NO and ethanol tolerance, and also suggests a role for membrane fluidity. The significantly different omic profiles of strain E1 indicate that IrrE functions as a global regulator in E. coli, and that IrrE may be evolved for other cellular tolerances. In this sense, it will provide synthetic biology with a practical and evolvable regulatory “part” that operates at a higher level of complexity than local regulators. This work also suggests a possibility of introducing and engineering other exogenous global regulators to rewire the genomes of microorganism cells.

Antagonistic Roles for GcvA and GcvB in hdeAB Expression in Escherichia coli

In E. coli, the periplasmic proteins HdeA and HdeB have chaperone-like functions, suppressing aggregation of periplasmic proteins under acidic conditions. A microarray analysis of RNA isolated from an E. coli wild type and a ΔgcvB strain grown to mid-log phase in Luria-Bertani broth indicated the hdeAB operon, encoding the HdeA and HdeB proteins, is regulated by the sRNA GcvB. We wanted to verify that GcvB and its coregulator Hfq play a role in regulation of the hdeAB operon. In this study, we show that GcvB positively regulates hdeA::lacZ and hdeB::lacZ translational fusions in cells grown in Luria-Bertani broth and in glucose minimal media + glycine. Activation also requires the Hfq protein. Although many sRNAs dependent on Hfq regulate by an antisense mechanism, GcvB regulates hdeAB either directly or indirectly at the level of transcription. GcvA, the activator of gcvB, negatively regulates hdeAB at the level of transcription. Although expression of gcvB is dependent on GcvA, activation of hdeAB by GcvB occurs independently of GcvA's ability to repress the operon. Cell survival and growth at low pH are consistent with GcvA negatively regulating and GcvB positively regulating the hdeAB operon.

Engineering artificial small RNAs for conditional gene silencing in Escherichia coli

It has become increasingly evident that noncoding small RNAs (sRNAs) play a significant and global role in bacterial gene regulation. A majority of the trans-acting sRNAs in bacteria interact with the 5' untranslated region (UTR) and/or the translation initiation region of the targeted mRNAs via imperfect base pairing, resulting in reduced translation efficiency and/or mRNA stability. Additionally, bacterial sRNAs often contain distinct scaffolds that recruit RNA chaperones such as Hfq to facilitate gene regulation. In this study, we describe a strategy to engineer artificial sRNAs that can regulate desired endogenous genes in Escherichia coli. Using a fluorescent reporter gene that was translationally fused to a native 5' mRNA leader sequence, active artificial sRNAs were screened from libraries in which natural sRNA scaffolds were fused to a randomized antisense domain. Artificial sRNAs that posttranscriptionally repress two endogenous genes ompF and fliC were isolated and characterized. We anticipate that the artificial sRNAs will be useful for dynamic control and fine-tuning of endogenous gene expression in bacteria for applications in synthetic biology.

Small RNA RyhB as a potential tool used for metabolic engineering in Escherichia coli

Small RNA (RyhB) was overexpressed artificially using an arabinose-inducible system in Escherichia coli and resulted in more succinate (7-fold) accumulation, which suggested that RyhB had a strong effect on sdhCDAB genes. Acetate was also increased indicating that RyhB had a comprehensive influence on glucose central metabolism. RyhB might therefore be useful for metabolic engineering of E. coli.

Coexisting/Coexpressing Genomic Libraries (CoGeL) identify interactions among distantly located genetic loci for developing complex microbial phenotypes

In engineering novel microbial strains for biotechnological applications, beyond a priori identifiable pathways to be engineered, it is becoming increasingly important to develop complex, ill-defined cellular phenotypes. One approach is to screen genomic or metagenomic libraries to identify genes imparting desirable phenotypes, such as tolerance to stressors or novel catabolic programs. Such libraries are limited by their inability to identify interactions among distant genetic loci. To solve this problem, we constructed plasmid- and fosmid-based Escherichia coli Coexisting/Coexpressing Genomic Libraries (CoGeLs). As a proof of principle, four sets of two genes of the l-lysine biosynthesis pathway distantly located on the E. coli chromosome were knocked out. Upon transformation of these auxotrophs with CoGeLs, cells growing without supplementation were found to harbor library inserts containing the knocked-out genes demonstrating the interaction between the two libraries. CoGeLs were also screened to identify genetic loci that work synergistically to create the considerably more complex acid-tolerance phenotype. CoGeL screening identified combination of genes known to enhance acid tolerance (gadBC operon and adiC), but also identified the novel combination of arcZ and recA that greatly enhanced acid tolerance by 9000-fold. arcZ is a small RNA that we show increases pH tolerance alone and together with recA.

Major role for mRNA binding and restructuring in sRNA recruitment by Hfq

Bacterial small RNAs (sRNAs) modulate gene expression by base-pairing with target mRNAs. Many sRNAs require the Sm-like RNA binding protein Hfq as a cofactor. Well-characterized interactions between DsrA sRNA and the rpoS mRNA leader were used to understand how Hfq stimulates sRNA pairing with target mRNAs. DsrA annealing stimulates expression of rpoS by disrupting a secondary structure in the rpoS leader, which otherwise prevents translation. Both RNAs bind Hfq with similar affinity but interact with opposite faces of the Hfq hexamer. Using mutations that block interactions between two of the three components, we demonstrate that Hfq binding to a functionally critical (AAN)(4) motif in rpoS mRNA rescues DsrA binding to a hyperstable rpoS mutant. We also show that Hfq cannot stably bridge the RNAs. Persistent ternary complexes only form when the two RNAs are complementary. Thus, Hfq mainly acts by binding and restructuring the rpoS mRNA. However, Hfq binding to DsrA is needed for maximum annealing in vitro, indicating that transient interactions with both RNAs contribute to the regulatory mechanism.

ATP requirement for acidic resistance in Escherichia coli

ATP participates in many cellular metabolic processes as a major substrate to supply energy. Many systems for acidic resistance (AR) under extremely acidic conditions have been reported, but the role of ATP has not been examined. To clarify whether or not ATP is necessary for the AR in Escherichia coli, the AR of mutants deficient in genes for ATP biosynthesis was investigated in this study. The deletion of purA or purB, each of which encodes enzymes to produce AMP from inosinate (IMP), markedly decreased the AR. The content of ATP in these mutants decreased rapidly at pH 2.5 compared to that of the wild type. The AR was again decreased significantly by the mutation of adk, which encoded an enzyme to produce ADP from AMP. The DNA damage in the purA and purB mutants was higher than that in the wild type. These results demonstrated that metabolic processes that require ATP participate in survival under extremely acidic conditions, and that one such system is the ATP-dependent DNA repair system.

Effect of overexpression of small non-coding DsrA RNA on multidrug efflux in Escherichia coli

OBJECTIVES

Several putative and proven drug efflux pumps are present in Escherichia coli. Because many such efflux pumps have overlapping substrate spectra, it is intriguing that bacteria, with their economically organized genomes, harbour such large sets of multidrug efflux genes. To understand how bacteria utilize these multiple efflux pumps, it is important to elucidate the process of pump expression regulation. The aim of this study was to determine a regulator of the multidrug efflux pump in this organism.

METHODS

We screened a genomic library of E. coli for genes that decreased drug susceptibility in this organism. The library was developed from the chromosomal DNA of the MG1655 strain, and then the recombinant plasmids were transformed into an acrB-deleted strain. Transformants were screened for resistance to various antibiotics including oxacillin.

RESULTS

We found that the multidrug susceptibilities of the acrB-deleted strain were decreased by the overexpression of small non-coding DsrA RNA as well as by the overexpression of known regulators of multidrug efflux pumps. Plasmids carrying the dsrA gene conferred resistance to oxacillin, cloxacillin, erythromycin, rhodamine 6G and novobiocin. DsrA decreased the accumulation of ethidium bromide in E. coli cells. Furthermore, expression of mdtE was significantly increased by dsrA overexpression, and the decreased multidrug susceptibilities modulated by DsrA were dependent on the MdtEF efflux pump.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that DsrA modulates multidrug efflux through activation of genes encoding the MdtEF pump in E. coli.

Evidence for an autonomous 5' target recognition domain in an Hfq-associated small RNA

The abundant class of bacterial Hfq-associated small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) parallels animal microRNAs in their ability to control multiple genes at the posttranscriptional level by short and imperfect base pairing. In contrast to the universal length and seed pairing mechanism of microRNAs, the sRNAs are heterogeneous in size and structure, and how they regulate multiple targets is not well understood. This paper provides evidence that a 5' located sRNA domain is a critical element for the control of a large posttranscriptional regulon. We show that the conserved 5' end of RybB sRNA recognizes multiple mRNAs of Salmonella outer membrane proteins by ≥7-bp Watson-Crick pairing. When fused to an unrelated sRNA, the 5' domain is sufficient to guide target mRNA degradation and maintain σ(E)-dependent envelope homeostasis. RybB sites in mRNAs are often conserved and flanked by 3' adenosine. They are found in a wide sequence window ranging from the upstream untranslated region to the deep coding sequence, indicating that some targets might be repressed at the level of translation, whereas others are repressed primarily by mRNA destabilization. Autonomous 5' domains seem more common in sRNAs than appreciated and might improve the design of synthetic RNA regulators.

Molecular and evolutionary bases of within-patient genotypic and phenotypic diversity in Escherichia coli extraintestinal infections

Although polymicrobial infections, caused by combinations of viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites, are being recognised with increasing frequency, little is known about the occurrence of within-species diversity in bacterial infections and the molecular and evolutionary bases of this diversity. We used multiple approaches to study the genomic and phenotypic diversity among 226 Escherichia coli isolates from deep and closed visceral infections occurring in 19 patients. We observed genomic variability among isolates from the same site within 11 patients. This diversity was of two types, as patients were infected either by several distinct E. coli clones (4 patients) or by members of a single clone that exhibit micro-heterogeneity (11 patients); both types of diversity were present in 4 patients. A surprisingly wide continuum of antibiotic resistance, outer membrane permeability, growth rate, stress resistance, red dry and rough morphotype characteristics and virulence properties were present within the isolates of single clones in 8 of the 11 patients showing genomic micro-heterogeneity. Many of the observed phenotypic differences within clones affected the trade-off between self-preservation and nutritional competence (SPANC). We showed in 3 patients that this phenotypic variability was associated with distinct levels of RpoS in co-existing isolates. Genome mutational analysis and global proteomic comparisons in isolates from a patient revealed a star-like relationship of changes amongst clonally diverging isolates. A mathematical model demonstrated that multiple genotypes with distinct RpoS levels can co-exist as a result of the SPANC trade-off. In the cases involving infection by a single clone, we present several lines of evidence to suggest diversification during the infectious process rather than an infection by multiple isolates exhibiting a micro-heterogeneity. Our results suggest that bacteria are subject to trade-offs during an infectious process and that the observed diversity resembled results obtained in experimental evolution studies. Whatever the mechanisms leading to diversity, our results have strong medical implications in terms of the need for more extensive isolate testing before deciding on antibiotic therapies.

We investigated whether an infection is a site of pathogen within-species diversity. Our results indicate that there is indeed extensive diversity during human extraintestinal infections by Escherichia coli. This diversity was of two types, not mutually exclusive, as we found that patients were infected either by several distinct E. coli clones or by members of a single clone that exhibit micro-heterogeneity. The high degree of phenotypic diversity, including antibiotic resistance, suggests that there is no uniform selection pressure leading to a single fitter clone during an infection. We discuss a possible mechanism and a mathematical model that explains these unexpected results. Our data suggest that the evolution of diversity in the course of an infection and in in vitro experimental evolution in the absence of host immune selective pressure may have many parallels. Whatever the mechanisms leading to diversity, our results have strong medical implications in terms of the need for more extensive isolate testing before deciding on antibiotic therapies.

A dual-function sRNA from B. subtilis: SR1 acts as a peptide encoding mRNA on the gapA operon

Small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) have been found to regulate gene expression in all three kingdoms of life. So far, relatively little is known about sRNAs from Gram-positive bacteria. SR1 is a regulatory sRNA from the Bacillus subtilis chromosome that inhibits by base-pairing translation initiation of ahrC mRNA encoding a transcriptional activator of the arginine catabolic operons. Here we present a novel target of SR1, the glycolytic gapA operon. Both microarray and Northern blot analyses show that the amount of gapA operon mRNA is significantly higher in the presence of SR1 when cells were grown in complex medium until stationary phase. Translational lacZ fusions and toeprinting analyses demonstrate that SR1 does not promote translation of gapA mRNA. By contrast, the half-life of gapA operon mRNA is strongly reduced in the sr1 knockout strain. SR1 does not act as a base-pairing sRNA on gapA operon mRNA. Instead, we demonstrate that the 39 aa peptide encoded by SR1, SR1P, is responsible for the effect of SR1 on the gapA operon. We show that SR1P binds GapA, thereby stabilizing the gapA operon mRNA by a hitherto unknown mechanism. SR1 is the first dual-function sRNA found in B. subtilis.

Acid stress response in enteropathogenic gammaproteobacteria: an aptitude for survivalThis paper is one of a selection of papers published in this special issue entitled “Canadian Society of Biochemistry, Molecular & Cellular Biology 52nd Annual Meeting — Protein Folding: Principles and Diseases” and has undergone the Journal's usual peer review process

Enteric bacteria such as Escherichia coli have acquired a wide array of acid stress response systems to counteract the extreme acidity encountered when invading the host’s digestive or urinary tracts. These acid stress response systems are both enzyme and chaperone based. The 3 main enzyme-based acid resistance pathways are glutamate-, arginine-, and lysine-decarboxylase pathways. They are under a complex regulatory network allowing the bacteria to fine tune its response to the external environment. HdeA and HdeB are the main chaperones involved in acid stress response. The decarboxylase systems are also found in Vibrio cholera, Vibrio vulnifus, Shigella flexneri, and Salmonella typhimurium, although some differences exist in their functional mechanism and regulation.

Multiple small RNAs identified in Mycobacterium bovis BCG are also expressed in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium smegmatis

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major global health problem, infecting millions of people each year. The causative agent of TB, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is one of the world’s most ancient and successful pathogens. However, until recently, no work on small regulatory RNAs had been performed in this organism. Regulatory RNAs are found in all three domains of life, and have already been shown to regulate virulence in well-known pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio cholera. Here we report the discovery of 34 novel small RNAs (sRNAs) in the TB-complex M. bovis BCG, using a combination of experimental and computational approaches. Putative homologues of many of these sRNAs were also identified in M. tuberculosis and/or M. smegmatis. Those sRNAs that are also expressed in the non-pathogenic M. smegmatis could be functioning to regulate conserved cellular functions. In contrast, those sRNAs identified specifically in M. tuberculosis could be functioning in mediation of virulence, thus rendering them potential targets for novel antimycobacterials. Various features and regulatory aspects of some of these sRNAs are discussed.

Stationary phase in gram-negative bacteria

Conditions that sustain constant bacterial growth are seldom found in nature. Oligotrophic environments and competition among microorganisms force bacteria to be able to adapt quickly to rough and changing situations. A particular lifestyle composed of continuous cycles of growth and starvation is commonly referred to as feast and famine. Bacteria have developed many different mechanisms to survive in nutrient-depleted and harsh environments, varying from producing a more resistant vegetative cell to complex developmental programmes. As a consequence of prolonged starvation, certain bacterial species enter a dynamic nonproliferative state in which continuous cycles of growth and death occur until 'better times' come (restoration of favourable growth conditions). In the laboratory, microbiologists approach famine situations using batch culture conditions. The entrance to the stationary phase is a very regulated process governed by the alternative sigma factor RpoS. Induction of RpoS changes the gene expression pattern, aiming to produce a more resistant cell. The study of stationary phase revealed very interesting phenomena such as the growth advantage in stationary phase phenotype. This review focuses on some of the interesting responses of gram-negative bacteria when they enter the fascinating world of stationary phase.