1
|
Population structure analysis and laboratory monitoring of Shigella by core-genome multilocus sequence typing. Nat Commun 2022; 13:551. [PMID: 35087053 PMCID: PMC8795385 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28121-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The laboratory surveillance of bacillary dysentery is based on a standardised Shigella typing scheme that classifies Shigella strains into four serogroups and more than 50 serotypes on the basis of biochemical tests and lipopolysaccharide O-antigen serotyping. Real-time genomic surveillance of Shigella infections has been implemented in several countries, but without the use of a standardised typing scheme. Here, we study over 4000 reference strains and clinical isolates of Shigella, covering all serotypes, with both the current serotyping scheme and the standardised EnteroBase core-genome multilocus sequence typing scheme (cgMLST). The Shigella genomes are grouped into eight phylogenetically distinct clusters, within the E. coli species. The cgMLST hierarchical clustering (HC) analysis at different levels of resolution (HC2000 to HC400) recognises the natural population structure of Shigella. By contrast, the serotyping scheme is affected by horizontal gene transfer, leading to a conflation of genetically unrelated Shigella strains and a separation of genetically related strains. The use of this cgMLST scheme will facilitate the transition from traditional phenotypic typing to routine whole-genome sequencing for the laboratory surveillance of Shigella infections. Lab-based surveillance of Shigella has traditionally been based on serotyping but increasing availability of whole genome sequencing could enable higher resolution typing. Here, the authors apply a core genome multilocus sequence typing scheme to Shigella sequence data and describe its population structure.
Collapse
|
2
|
Muthuirulandi Sethuvel DP, Devanga Ragupathi NK, Anandan S, Veeraraghavan B. Update on: Shigella new serogroups/serotypes and their antimicrobial resistance. Lett Appl Microbiol 2016; 64:8-18. [PMID: 27783408 DOI: 10.1111/lam.12690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Revised: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Shigellosis represents a major burden of disease in developing countries. A low infectious dose allows the disease to be spread effectively. Although shigellosis is mostly a self-limiting disease, antibiotics are recommended to reduce deaths, disease symptoms and organism-shedding time. However, in India, antimicrobial resistance among the genus Shigella is more common than among any other enteric bacteria. Notably, new serotypes or subserotypes in Shigella are reported from various parts of the world. Identification of new subserotypes of Shigella spp. is becoming a major issue as these strains are nontypeable by conventional serotyping. The commercially available antisera may not cover all possible epitopes of the O lipopolysaccharide antigen of Shigella serotypes. Therefore, molecular methods which most closely approach the resolution of full serotyping are necessary to identify such strains. In addition, the knowledge of a prevalent serotype in various geographic regions may assist in formulating strategies such as the development of a vaccine to prevent infection especially when the immunity to disease is serotype specific, and to understand the disease burden caused by new Shigella serotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - S Anandan
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - B Veeraraghavan
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
Background Ninety-two Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes have been described so far, but the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine introduced in the Brazilian basic vaccination schedule in 2010 covers only the ten most prevalent in the country. Pneumococcal serotype-shifting after massive immunization is a major concern and monitoring this phenomenon requires efficient and accessible serotyping methods. Pneumococcal serotyping based on antisera produced in animals is laborious and restricted to a few reference laboratories. Alternatively, molecular serotyping methods assess polymorphisms in the cps gene cluster, which encodes key enzymes for capsular polysaccharides synthesis in pneumococci. In one such approach, cps-RFLP, the PCR amplified cps loci are digested with an endonuclease, generating serotype-specific fingerprints on agarose gel electrophoresis. Methods In this work, in silico and in vitro approaches were combined to demonstrate that XhoII is the most discriminating endonuclease for cps-RFLP, and to build a database of serotype-specific fingerprints that accommodates the genetic diversity within the cps locus of 92 known pneumococci serotypes. Results The expected specificity of cps-RFLP using XhoII was 76% for serotyping and 100% for serogrouping. The database of cps-RFLP fingerprints was integrated to Molecular Serotyping Tool (MST), a previously published web-based software for molecular serotyping. In addition, 43 isolates representing 29 serotypes prevalent in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, from 2007 to 2013, were examined in vitro; 11 serotypes (nine serogroups) matched the respective in silico patterns calculated for reference strains. The remaining experimental patterns, despite their resemblance to their expected in silico patterns, did not reach the threshold of similarity score to be considered a match and were then added to the database. Conclusion The cps-RFLP method with XhoII outperformed the antisera-based and other molecular serotyping methods in regard of the expected specificity. In order to accommodate the genetic variability of the pneumococci cps loci, the database of cps-RFLP patterns will be progressively expanded to include new variant in vitro patterns. The cps-RFLP method with endonuclease XhoII coupled with MST for computer-assisted interpretation of results may represent a relevant contribution to the real time detection of changes in regional pneumococci population diversity in response to mass immunization programs.
Collapse
|
4
|
Serological cross-reaction between O-antigens of Shigella dysenteriae type 4 and an environmental Escherichia albertii isolate. Curr Microbiol 2013; 67:590-5. [PMID: 23748967 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-013-0405-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/27/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
An environmental freshwater bacterial isolate, DM104, appearing as Shigella-like colonies on selective agar plates was found to show strong and specific serological cross-reactivity with Shigella dysenteriae type 4. Biochemical identification according to the analytical profile index, molecular serotyping by restriction of the amplified O-antigen gene cluster (rfb-RFLP), together with phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene and multi-locus sequence analysis, identified the isolate as Escherichia albertii. rfb-RFLP of DM104, revealed a profile different from that of S. dysenteriae type 4. However, western blot analysis of extracted lipopolysaccharides demonstrated strong cross-reactivity with S. dysenteriae type 4 using specific monovalent antisera and a lipopolysaccharide gel banding profile similar to that of S. dysenteriae type 4. The observed O-antigen cross-reaction between an E. albertii isolate and S. dysenteriae extends our knowledge of the extent of O-antigen cross-reaction within the Escherichia/Shigella group of organisms, and offers the possibility of using DM104 and similar cross-reacting strains as shigellosis vaccine candidates.
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhang J, Qian L, Wu Y, Cai X, Li X, Cheng X, Qu D. Deletion of pic results in decreased virulence for a clinical isolate of Shigella flexneri 2a from China. BMC Microbiol 2013; 13:31. [PMID: 23391153 PMCID: PMC3626585 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-13-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2012] [Accepted: 01/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Shigella is a major pathogen responsible for bacillary dysentery, a severe form of shigellosis. Severity of the disease depends on the virulence of the infecting strain. Shigella pathogenicity is a multi-gene phenomenon, involving the participation of genes on an unstable large virulence plasmid and chromosomal pathogenicity islands. Results A multiplex PCR (mPCR) assay was developed to detect S. flexneri 2a from rural regions of Zhengding (Hebei Province, China). We isolated and tested 86 strains using our mPCR assay, which targeted the ipaH, ial and set1B genes. A clinical strain of S. flexneri 2a 51 (SF51) containing ipaH and ial, but lacking set1B was found. The virulence of this strain was found to be markedly decreased. Further testing showed that the SF51 strain lacked pic. To investigate the role of pic in S. flexneri 2a infections, a pic knockout mutant (SF301-∆ pic) and two complementation strains, SF301-∆ pic/pPic and SF51/pPic, were created. Differences in virulence for SF51, SF301-∆ pic, SF301-∆ pic/pPic, SF51/pPic and S. flexneri 2a 301 (SF301) were compared. Compared with SF301, both SF51 and SF301-∆ pic exhibited lower levels of Hela cell invasion and resulted in reduced keratoconjunctivitis, with low levels of tissue damage seen in murine eye sections. The virulence of SF301-∆ pic and SF51 was partially recovered in vitro and in vivo through the addition of a complementary pic gene. Conclusions The pic gene appears to be involved in an increase in pathogenicity of S. flexneri 2a. This gene assists with bacterial invasion into host cells and alters inflammatory reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junqi Zhang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Azmuda N, Rahman MZ, Sultana M, Jenssen EL, Khan SI, Birkeland NK. Evidence of interspecies O antigen gene cluster transfer between Shigella boydii 15 and Escherichia fergusonii. APMIS 2012; 120:959-66. [PMID: 23030400 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2012.02926.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
An environmental bacterial isolate, Iso10, previously found to show serological cross-reactivity with type-specific Shigella boydii 15 antisera was subjected to further molecular and serological analyses that revealed interspecies transfer of the O antigen gene cluster. Western blot analysis of Iso10 cell surface extracts and purified lipopolysaccharides demonstrated strong cross-reactivity with S. boydii 15-specific monovalent antisera and a lipopolysaccharide gel banding profile similar to that of S. boydii 15. Biochemical and phylogenetic analyses identified the Iso10 isolate as Escherichia fergusonii. O antigen gene cluster analyses of Iso10, carried out by restriction fragment length analysis of the amplified ~10-kb O antigen-encoding gene cluster, revealed a profile highly similar to that of S. boydii 15, confirming the presence of the S. boydii 15 somatic antigen in Iso10. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of interspecies transfer of O antigen-encoding genes between S. boydii and E. fergusonii, and it has implications for our understanding of the role of lateral gene transfer in the emergence of novel Shigella serotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nafisa Azmuda
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Hayford AE, Mammel MK, Lacher DW, Brown EW. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-based differentiation of Shigella isolates by pyrosequencing. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2011; 11:1761-8. [PMID: 21839856 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2011.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2011] [Revised: 07/15/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alice E Hayford
- Division of Molecular Biology, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
MST (molecular serotyping tool): a program for computer-assisted molecular identification of Escherichia coli and Shigella O antigens. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48:1921-3. [PMID: 20200287 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00357-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Escherichia coli and Shigella O antigens can be inferred using the rfb-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) molecular test. We present herein a dynamic programming algorithm-based software to compare the rfb-RFLP patterns of clinical isolates with those in a database containing the 171 previously published patterns corresponding to all known E. coli/Shigella O antigens.
Collapse
|
9
|
Liu B, Knirel YA, Feng L, Perepelov AV, Senchenkova SN, Wang Q, Reeves PR, Wang L. Structure and genetics ofShigellaO antigens. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2008; 32:627-53. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2008.00114.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
|
10
|
Selection and validation of a multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis panel for typing Shigella spp. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46:1026-36. [PMID: 18216214 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02027-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Shigella genus has historically been separated into four species, based on biochemical assays. The classification within each species relies on serotyping. Recently, genome sequencing and DNA assays, in particular the multilocus sequence typing (MLST) approach, greatly improved the current knowledge of the origin and phylogenetic evolution of Shigella spp. The Shigella and Escherichia genera are now considered to belong to a unique genomospecies. Multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat (VNTR) analysis (MLVA) provides valuable polymorphic markers for genotyping and performing phylogenetic analyses of highly homogeneous bacterial pathogens. Here, we assess the capability of MLVA for Shigella typing. Thirty-two potentially polymorphic VNTRs were selected by analyzing in silico five Shigella genomic sequences and subsequently evaluated. Eventually, a panel of 15 VNTRs was selected (i.e., MLVA15 analysis). MLVA15 analysis of 78 strains or genome sequences of Shigella spp. and 11 strains or genome sequences of Escherichia coli distinguished 83 genotypes. Shigella population cluster analysis gave consistent results compared to MLST. MLVA15 analysis showed capabilities for E. coli typing, providing classification among pathogenic and nonpathogenic E. coli strains included in the study. The resulting data can be queried on our genotyping webpage (http://mlva.u-psud.fr). The MLVA15 assay is rapid, highly discriminatory, and reproducible for Shigella and Escherichia strains, suggesting that it could significantly contribute to epidemiological trace-back analysis of Shigella infections and pathogenic Escherichia outbreaks. Typing was performed on strains obtained mostly from collections. Further studies should include strains of much more diverse origins, including all pathogenic E. coli types.
Collapse
|
11
|
Grimont F, Lejay-Collin M, Talukder KA, Carle I, Issenhuth S, Le Roux K, Grimont PAD. Identification of a group of shigella-like isolates as Shigella boydii 20. J Med Microbiol 2007; 56:749-754. [PMID: 17510258 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.46818-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections by Shigella species are an important cause of diarrhoeal disease worldwide. Of 4198 Shigella isolates received by the French National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli and Shigella, 180 from patients with diarrhoea and dysentery in 2000-2004 did not react with any available polyclonal rabbit antisera used to identify the established Shigella serogroups. This study describes the molecular and phenotypic characteristics of these isolates in seroagglutination tests, molecular serotyping (rfb-RFLP and fliC-RFLP), ribotyping, detection of invasivity and enterotoxins genes, and antibiotic sensitivity. All isolates gave biochemical reactions typical of Shigella boydii, were mannitol-positive and indole-negative. They all carried invasion-associated genes, enterotoxin 2 [ShET-2] and an IS630 sequence. They had a unique ribotype that was distinct from all other Shigella and E. coli patterns. Further characterization by rfb-RFLP clearly distinguished this serogroup from all other Shigella or E. coli O-groups. The fliC-RFLP pattern corresponded to P4, an F-pattern which is associated with 10 different serogroups of S. boydii. A new antiserum prepared against strain 00-977 agglutinated all 180 isolates and cross-agglutination and absorption studies with anti-00-977 serum and anti-CDC 99-4528 (reference for the newly described S. boydii serogroup 20) serum showed identical antigenic structure. Furthermore, strains 00-977 and CDC 99-4528 had the same molecular serotype, ribotype and virulence genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francine Grimont
- French National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli and Shigella, Unité de Biodiversité des Bactéries Pathogènes Emergentes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Monique Lejay-Collin
- French National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli and Shigella, Unité de Biodiversité des Bactéries Pathogènes Emergentes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Kaisar A Talukder
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Diseases Research, Dhaka-100, Bangladesh
| | - Isabelle Carle
- French National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli and Shigella, Unité de Biodiversité des Bactéries Pathogènes Emergentes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Issenhuth
- French National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli and Shigella, Unité de Biodiversité des Bactéries Pathogènes Emergentes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Karine Le Roux
- French National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli and Shigella, Unité de Biodiversité des Bactéries Pathogènes Emergentes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Patrick A D Grimont
- French National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli and Shigella, Unité de Biodiversité des Bactéries Pathogènes Emergentes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Talukder KA, Mondol AS, Islam MA, Islam Z, Dutta DK, Khajanchi BK, Azmi IJ, Hossain MA, Rahman M, Cheasty T, Cravioto A, Nair GB, Sack DA. A novel serovar of Shigella dysenteriae from patients with diarrhoea in Bangladesh. J Med Microbiol 2007; 56:654-658. [PMID: 17446289 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.46999-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Every year, around 3 % of isolates from patients with diarrhoea at Dhaka Hospital, ICDDR,B, are identified as Shigella-like organisms (SLOs) based on their activity in biochemical tests. These isolates do not react with any of the current Shigella antisera including all existing and provisional serotypes. Among these SLOs, a unique cluster of seven isolates with an identical plasmid profile was found and these isolates were further characterized by phenotypic and genotypic techniques. All were nonlactose fermenters, with an identical biochemical pattern typical of Shigella dysenteriae. They were classified as invasive since they harboured the 140 MDa invasive plasmid, were able to bind Congo red, produced keratoconjunctivitis in the guinea pig eye, and were positive by PCR for the ipaH gene and Shigella enterotoxin 2 [ShET-2] gene. All isolates were resistant to ampicillin, tetracycline and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim but were susceptible to mecillinam, nalidixic acid, ceftriaxone and ciprofloxacin. Six of the isolates were identical in DNA pattern by PFGE with the seventh exhibiting a closely related pattern; both patterns were distinguishable from all other Shigella and Escherichia coli patterns. An antiserum prepared against one of the isolates reacted with all isolates and did not cross-react with other Shigella and E. coli serotype reference strains. It is therefore proposed that these isolates represent a new provisional serovar of S. dysenteriae, type strain KIVI 162.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaisar A Talukder
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Abdus S Mondol
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - M Aminul Islam
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Zhahirul Islam
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Dilip K Dutta
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Bijay K Khajanchi
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Ishrat J Azmi
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - M A Hossain
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - M Rahman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Thomas Cheasty
- Laboratory of Enteric Pathogens, Health Protection Agency, Centre for Infections, Colindale, London NW9, UK
| | - Alejandro Cravioto
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - G B Nair
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - David A Sack
- ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research, GPO Box 128, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Talukder KA, Khajanchi BK, Islam MA, Dutta DK, Islam Z, Khan SI, Nair GB, Sack DA. The emerging strains of Shigella dysenteriae type 2 in Bangladesh are clonal. Epidemiol Infect 2006; 134:1249-56. [PMID: 16684401 PMCID: PMC2870502 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268806006029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of 113 strains of Shigella dysenteriae type 2 isolated from patients attending the Dhaka diarrhoea treatment centre of ICDDR,B: Centre for Health and Population Research during the period 1999-2004 were studied. Serotype of the isolates was confirmed using commercially available antisera. Except for arabinose fermentation, all the strains had similar biochemical reactions. More than 60% of the strains were sensitive to commonly used antibiotics; only 6% (n=7) of the strains were resistant to nalidixic acid, and none of the strains were resistant to mecillinam and ciprofloxacin. All strains were invasive as demonstrated by the presence of a 140 MDa plasmid, ial, sen and ipaH genes, Congo Red absorption ability and by the Sereny test performed on representative strains. Plasmid patterns were heterogeneous but more than 50% of strains were confined to a single pattern. All strains possessed a 1.6 MDa plasmid and 87% of the strains contained a 4 MDa plasmid. Middle-range plasmids (90 MDa to 30 MDa) present in 36% of the strains were not associated with antibiotic resistance. All the strains were clustered within a single type with four subtypes by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis while ribotyping patterns of all the strains were identical.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K A Talukder
- ICDDR, B: Centre for Health and Population Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|