Functional organization of single and paired V(D)J cleavage complexes

B Cell Development and Maturation

Since the identification of B cells in 1965 (Cooper  et al. 1965), three has been tremendous progress in our understanding of B cell development, maturation and function. A number of B cell subpopulations, including B-1, B-2 and regulatory B cells, have been identified. B-1 cells mainly originate from the fetal liver and contain B-1a and B-1b subsets. B-2 cells are derived from the bone marrow (BM) and can be further classified into follicular B (FOB) and marginal zone B (MZB) cells. Regulatory B cells (Bregs) function to suppress immune responses, primarily by production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. B cell tolerance is established at several checkpoints, during B cell development in the BM (central tolerance) as well as during B cell maturation and activation in the periphery (peripheral tolerance). This chapter will focus on the regulation of important processes during the development and maturation of B-1 and B-2 cells.

The architecture of the 12RSS in V(D)J recombination signal and synaptic complexes

V(D)J recombination is initiated by RAG1 and RAG2, which together with HMGB1 bind to a recombination signal sequence (12RSS or 23RSS) to form the signal complex (SC) and then capture a complementary partner RSS, yielding the paired complex (PC). Little is known regarding the structural changes that accompany the SC to PC transition or the structural features that allow RAG to distinguish its two asymmetric substrates. To address these issues, we analyzed the structure of the 12RSS in the SC and PC using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and molecular dynamics modeling. The resulting models indicate that the 12RSS adopts a strongly bent V-shaped structure upon RAG/HMGB1 binding and reveal structural differences, particularly near the heptamer, between the 12RSS in the SC and PC. Comparison of models of the 12RSS and 23RSS in the PC reveals broadly similar shapes but a distinct number and location of DNA bends as well as a smaller central cavity for the 12RSS. These findings provide the most detailed view yet of the 12RSS in RAG–DNA complexes and highlight structural features of the RSS that might underlie activation of RAG-mediated cleavage and substrate asymmetry important for the 12/23 rule of V(D)J recombination.

Characterization of RAG1 and IgM (mu chain) marking development of the immune system in red-spotted grouper (Epinephelus akaara)

In vertebrates, lymphoid-specific recombinase protein encoded by recombination-activating genes (RAG1/2) plays a key role in V(D)J recombination of the T-cell receptor and B-cell receptor. In this study, both RAG1 and the immunoglobulin M (IgM) mu chain were cloned to characterize their potential role in the immune defense at developmental stages of red-spotted grouper, Epinephelus akaara. The open reading frame (ORF) of E. akaara RAG1 included 2778 nucleotide residues encoding a putative protein of 925 amino acids, while the ORF of the IgM mu chain had 1734 nucleotide residues encoding 578 amino acids including variable (VH) and constant (CH1-CH2-CH3-CH4) regions. E. akaara RAG1 was composed of a zinc-binding dimerization domain (ZDD) with a RING finger and zinc finger A (ZFA) in the non-core region and a nonamer-binding region (NBR), with a zinc finger B (ZFB), the central and C-terminal domains in the core region. Tridimensional models of the ZDD and NBR of E. akaara RAG1 were constructed for the first time in fishes, while a 3D model of the E. akaara IgM mu chain was also clarified. The RAG1 mRNA was only detected in the thymus and kidney of 4-month and 1.5-year old groupers using qPCR, and the RAG1 protein was confirmed using western blotting and immunohistochemistry. The IgM mu mRNA was examined in most tissues except the gonad. RAG1 and IgM mu gene expression were observed at 15 dph (days post-hatching) and 23 dph respectively, and increased to a higher level at 37 dph. In addition, this was the first time that the morphology of the E. akaara thymus was characterized. The oval-shaped thymus of 4-month old fish was clearly seen and there were amounts of T lymphocytes present. The results suggested that the immune action of E. akaara was likely to start to develop around 15 dph to 29 dph. The transcript level of the RAG1 gene and the number of lymphocytes in the thymus between 4-month and 1.5-year old groupers indicated that age-related thymic atrophy also occurs in fishes. The similar functional structures of RAG1 and IgM protein between fish and mammals indicated that teleost species share a similar mechanism of V(D)J recombination with higher vertebrates.

V(D)J recombination: mechanisms of initiation

V(D)J recombination assembles immunoglobulin and T cell receptor genes during lymphocyte development through a series of carefully orchestrated DNA breakage and rejoining events. DNA cleavage requires a series of protein-DNA complexes containing the RAG1 and RAG2 proteins and recombination signals that flank the recombining gene segments. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the function and domain organization of the RAG proteins, the composition and structure of RAG-DNA complexes, and the pathways that lead to the formation of these complexes. We also consider the functional significance of RAG-mediated histone recognition and ubiquitin ligase activities, and the role played by RAG in ensuring proper repair of DNA breaks made during V(D)J recombination. Finally, we propose a model for the formation of RAG-DNA complexes that involves anchoring of RAG1 at the recombination signal nonamer and RAG2-dependent surveillance of adjoining DNA for suitable spacer and heptamer sequences.

Temporal and spatial regulatory functions of the V(D)J recombinase

In developing lymphocytes, V(D)J recombination is subject to tight spatial and temporal regulation. An emerging body of evidence indicates that some of these constraints, particularly with respect to locus specificity and cell cycle phase, are enforced by regulatory cues that converge directly on the RAG proteins themselves. Active chromatin is bound by RAG-2 through a specific histone modification that may serve the recombinase as an allosteric activator as well as a docking site. RAG-1 possesses intrinsic histone ubiquitin ligase activity, suggesting that the recombinase not only responds to chromatin modification but is itself able to modify chromatin. The cyclin A/Cdk2 component of the cell cycle clock triggers periodic destruction of RAG-2, thereby restricting V(D)J recombination to the G0/G1 cell cycle phases. These examples illustrate that the RAG proteins, in addition to their direct actions on DNA, are able to detect and respond to intracellular signals, thereby coordinating recombinase activity with intracellular processes such as cell division and transcription.

Molecular mechanism underlying RAG1/RAG2 synaptic complex formation

Two lymphoid cell-specific proteins, RAG1 and RAG2 (RAG), initiate V(D)J recombination by assembling a synaptic complex with recombination signal sequences (RSSs) abutting two different antigen receptor gene coding segments, and then introducing a DNA double strand break at the end of each RSS. Despite the biological importance of this system, the structure of the synaptic complex, and the RAG protein stoichiometry and arrangement of DNA within the synaptosome, remains poorly understood. Here we applied atomic force microscopy to directly visualize and characterize RAG synaptic complexes. We report that the pre-cleavage RAG synaptic complex contains about twice the protein content as a RAG complex bound to a single RSS, with a calculated mass consistent with a pair of RAG heterotetramers. In the synaptic complex, the RSSs are predominantly oriented in a side-by-side configuration with no DNA strand crossover. The mass of the synaptic complex, and the conditions under which it is formed in vitro, favors an association model of assembly in which isolated RAG-RSS complexes undergo synapsis mediated by RAG protein-protein interactions. The replacement of Mg2+ cations with Ca2+ leads to a dramatic change in protein stoichiometry for all RAG-RSS complexes, suggesting that the cation composition profoundly influences the type of complex assembled.

Structure of the RAG1 nonamer binding domain with DNA reveals a dimer that mediates DNA synapsis

The products of recombination-activating genes RAG1 and RAG2 mediate the assembly of antigen receptor genes during lymphocyte development in a process known as V(D)J recombination. Lack of structural information for the RAG proteins has hindered mechanistic studies of this reaction. We report here the crystal structure of an essential DNA binding domain of the RAG1 catalytic core bound to its nonamer DNA recognition motif. The RAG1 nonamer binding domain (NBD) forms a tightly interwoven dimer that binds and synapses two nonamer elements, with each NBD making contact with both DNA molecules. Biochemical and biophysical experiments confirm that the two nonamers are in close proximity in the RAG1/2-DNA synaptic complex and demonstrate the functional importance of the protein-DNA contacts revealed in the structure. These findings reveal a previously unsuspected function for the NBD in DNA synapsis and have implications for the regulation of DNA binding and cleavage by RAG1 and RAG2.

Early steps of V(D)J rearrangement: insights from biochemical studies of RAG-RSS complexes

V(D)J recombination is initiated by the synapsis and cleavage of a complementary (12/23) pair of recombination signal sequences (RSSs) by the RAG1 and RAG2 proteins. Our understanding of these processes has been greatly aided by the development of in vitro biochemical assays of RAG binding and cleavage activity. Accumulating evidence suggests that synaptic complex assembly occurs in a step-wise manner and that the RAG proteins catalyze RSS cleavage by mechanisms similar to those used by bacterial transposases. In this chapter we will review the molecular mechanisms of RAG synaptic complex assembly and 12/23-regulated RSS cleavage, focusing on recent advances that shed new light on these processes.

RAG-heptamer interaction in the synaptic complex is a crucial biochemical checkpoint for the 12/23 recombination rule

In V(D)J recombination, the RAG1 and RAG2 protein complex cleaves the recombination signal sequences (RSSs), generating a hairpin structure at the coding end. The cleavage occurs only between two RSSs with different spacer lengths of 12 and 23 bp. Here we report that in the synaptic complex, recombination-activating gene (RAG) proteins interact with the 7-mer and unstack the adjacent base in the coding region. We generated a RAG1 mutant that exhibits reduced RAG-7-mer interaction, unstacking of the coding base, and hairpin formation. Mutation of the 23-RSS at the first position of the 7-mer, which has been reported to impair the cleavage of the partner 12-RSS, demonstrated phenotypes similar to those of the RAG1 mutant; the RAG interaction and base unstacking in the partner 12-RSS are reduced. We propose that the RAG-7-mer interaction is a critical step for coding DNA distortion and hairpin formation in the context of the 12/23 rule.

The bounty of RAGs: recombination signal complexes and reaction outcomes

V(D)J recombination is a form of site-specific DNA rearrangement through which antigen receptor genes are assembled. This process involves the breakage and reunion of DNA mediated by two lymphoid cell-specific proteins, recombination activating genes RAG-1 and RAG-2, and ubiquitously expressed architectural DNA-binding proteins and DNA-repair factors. Here I review the progress toward understanding the composition, assembly, organization, and activity of the protein-DNA complexes that support the initiation of V(D)J recombination, as well as the molecular basis for the sequence-specific recognition of recombination signal sequences (RSSs) that are the targets of the RAG proteins. Parallels are drawn between V(D)J recombination and Tn5/Tn10 transposition with respect to the reactions, the proteins, and the protein-DNA complexes involved in these processes. I also consider the relative roles of the different sequence elements within the RSS in recognition, cleavage, and post-cleavage events. Finally, I discuss alternative DNA transactions mediated by the V(D)J recombinase, the protein-DNA complexes that support them, and factors and forces that control them.

The taming of a transposon: V(D)J recombination and the immune system

The genes that encode immunoglobulins and T-cell receptors must be assembled from the multiple variable (V), joining (J), and sometimes diversity (D) gene segments present in the germline loci. This process of V(D)J recombination is the major source of the immense diversity of the immune repertoire of jawed vertebrates. The recombinase that initiates the process, recombination-activating genes 1 (RAG1) and RAG2, belongs to a large family that includes transposases and retroviral integrases. RAG1/2 cleaves the DNA adjacent to the gene segments to be recombined, and the segments are then joined together by DNA repair factors. A decade of biochemical research on RAG1/2 has revealed many similarities to transposition, culminating with the observation that RAG1/2 can carry out transpositional strand transfer. Here, we discuss the parallels between V(D)J recombination and transposition, focusing specifically on the assembly of the recombination nucleoprotein complex, the mechanism of cleavage, the disassembly of post-cleavage complexes, and aberrant reactions carried out by the recombinase that do not result in successful locus rearrangement and may be deleterious to the organism. This work highlights the considerable diversity of transposition systems and their relation to V(D)J recombination.

Self-association and conformational properties of RAG1: implications for formation of the V(D)J recombinase

RAG1 and RAG2 catalyze the initial DNA cleavage steps in V(D)J recombination. Fundamental properties of these proteins remain largely unknown. Here, self-association and conformational properties of murine core RAG1 (residues 384-1008) were examined. As determined by multi-angle laser light scattering measurements, the molecular masses of two predominant core RAG1 species corresponded to dimeric and tetrameric states. Similar results were obtained using a RAG1 fragment containing residues 265-1008, indicating that a non-core portion of RAG1 does not alter the oligomerization states observed for the core region. The fraction of core RAG1 in the tetrameric state increased significantly at lower ionic strengths (0.2 versus 0.5 M NaCl), indicating that this oligomeric form may factor into the physiological function of RAG1. In addition, the secondary structural content of core RAG1, obtained by circular dichroism spectroscopy, demonstrated a significant dependence on ionic strength with a 26% increase in alpha-helical content from 0.2 to 1.0 M NaCl. Together, these results indicate that structural and oligomerization properties of core RAG1 are strongly dependent on electrostatic interactions. Furthermore, the secondary structure of core RAG1 changes upon binding to DNA, with larger increases in alpha-helical content upon binding to the recombination signal sequence (RSS) as compared with non-sequence-specific DNA. As shown by electrophoretic mobility shift assays, higher order oligomeric forms of core RAG1 bound to the canonical RSS. Furthermore, core RAG2 (residues 1-387) formed complexes with multimeric RAG1 species bound to a single RSS, providing additional support for the physiological relevance of higher order oligomeric states of RAG1.

The RAG1 N-terminal domain is an E3 ubiquitin ligase

RAG1 and RAG2 initiate V(D)J recombination, which is the assembly of immunoglobulin and T cell receptor genes. The N-terminal region of RAG1 can be deleted, leaving an enzymatic "core" able to catalyze the complete reaction. Here we report that the N-terminal portion of RAG1 has a distinct enzymatic role separate from the rest of the protein. It acts as an E3 ligase in the ubiquitylation of a test substrate and formation of polyubiquitin chains in vitro. This finding suggests a new way in which V(D)J recombination can be regulated and coupled to other aspects of cell physiology.

RAG1-DNA binding in V(D)J recombination. Specificity and DNA-induced conformational changes revealed by fluorescence and CD spectroscopy

The RAG1 and RAG2 proteins together constitute the nuclease that initiates the assembly of immunoglobulin and T cell receptor genes in a reaction known as V(D)J recombination. RAG1 plays a central role in recognition of the recombination signal sequence (RSS) by the RAG1/2 complex. To investigate the parameters governing the RAG1-RSS interaction, the murine core RAG1 protein (amino acids 377-1008) fused to a short Strep tag has been purified to homogeneity from bacteria. The Strep-RAG1 (StrRAG1) protein exists as a dimer at a wide range of protein concentrations (25-500 nM) in the absence of DNA and binds with reasonably high affinity and specificity (apparent K(D) = 41 nM) to the RSS. Both electrophoretic mobility shift assays and polarization anisotropy experiments indicate that only a single StrRAG1-DNA species exists in solution. Anisotropy decay measured by frequency domain spectroscopy suggests that the complex contains a dimer of StrRAG1 bound to a single DNA molecule. Using measurements of protein intrinsic fluorescence and circular dichroism, we demonstrate that StrRAG1 undergoes a major conformational change upon binding the RSS. Steady-state fluorescence and acrylamide quenching studies reveal that this conformational change is associated with a repositioning of intrinsic protein fluorophores from a hydrophobic to a solvent-exposed environment. RSS-induced conformational changes of StrRAG1 may influence the interaction of RAG1 with RAG2 and synaptic complex formation.

V(D)J recombination and DNA repair: lessons from human immune deficiencies and other animal models

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

V(D)J recombination not only represents the main mechanism for the diversification of the immune system, it also constitutes a critical checkpoint in the development of both B and T lymphocytes. While a defect in V(D)J recombination leads to severe combined immune deficiency, a deregulation of this process can participate in the onset of lymphoid malignancies.

RECENT FINDINGS

The careful analysis of human severe combined immune deficiency patients as well as engineered murine models provided several new interesting insights into the physiopathology of the V(D)J recombination process. A new factor of the V(D)J recombination/DNA repair machinery, Artemis, was identified based on its deficiency in human severe combined immune deficiency patients. It also became evident from knockout mouse studies that DNA repair factors that participate in V(D)J recombination can be considered as genomic caretakers.

SUMMARY

While V(D)J recombination was first recognized as a critical checkpoint in the development of the immune system, the discovery of several DNA repair factors that participate in this reaction shed light on more general aspects of genomic stability and cancer predisposition.

A RAG-1/RAG-2 tetramer supports 12/23-regulated synapsis, cleavage, and transposition of V(D)J recombination signals

Initiation of V(D)J recombination involves the synapsis and cleavage of a 12/23 pair of recombination signal sequences by RAG-1 and RAG-2. Ubiquitous nonspecific DNA-bending factors of the HMG box family, such as HMG-1, are known to assist in these processes. After cleavage, the RAG proteins remain bound to the cut signal ends and, at least in vitro, support the integration of these ends into unrelated target DNA via a transposition-like mechanism. To investigate whether the protein complex supporting synapsis, cleavage, and transposition of V(D)J recombination signals utilized the same complement of RAG and HMG proteins, I compared the RAG protein stoichiometries and activities of discrete protein-DNA complexes assembled on intact, prenicked, or precleaved recombination signal sequence (RSS) substrates in the absence and presence of HMG-1. In the absence of HMG-1, I found that two discrete RAG-1/RAG-2 complexes are detected by mobility shift assay on all RSS substrates tested. Both contain dimeric RAG-1 and either one or two RAG-2 subunits. The addition of HMG-1 supershifts both complexes without altering the RAG protein stoichiometry. I find that 12/23-regulated recombination signal synapsis and cleavage are only supported in a protein-DNA complex containing HMG-1 and a RAG-1/RAG-2 tetramer. Interestingly, the RAG-1/RAG-2 tetramer also supports transposition, but HMG-1 is dispensable for its activity.

Ordered assembly of the V(D)J synaptic complex ensures accurate recombination

Recombination of gene segments at the immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor loci requires that the RAG1 and RAG2 proteins bring together DNA signal sequences (RSSs) with 12- and 23-bp spacers into a synaptic complex and cleave the DNA. A RAG1/2 multimer that can cleave both signals is shown to assemble on an isolated RSS, and the complementary RSS enters this complex as naked DNA. When RAG1/2 is allowed to bind 12 and 23 RSSs separately prior to their mixing, synaptic complex assembly and cleavage activity are greatly reduced, indicating that only a complex initially assembled on a single RSS leads to productive cleavage. RAG1/2 complexes assembled on 12 RSSs will only incorporate 23 partners, while complexes assembled on 23 RSSs show a 5- to 6-fold preference for 12 partners. Thus, initial assembly on a 12 RSS most accurately reflects the strict 12/23 coupled cleavage observed in the cell. Additional cellular factors such as chromatin may ensure that RAG1/2 first assembles on a 12 RSS, and then a free 23 RSS enters to activate cleavage.

Mutational analysis of all conserved basic amino acids in RAG-1 reveals catalytic, step arrest, and joining-deficient mutants in the V(D)J recombinase

Although both RAG-1 and RAG-2 are required for all steps of V(D)J recombination, little is known about the specific contribution of either protein to these steps. RAG-1 contains three acidic active-site amino acids that are thought to coordinate catalytic metal ions. To search for additional catalytic amino acids and to better define the functional anatomy of RAG-1, we mutated all 86 conserved basic amino acids to alanine and evaluated the mutant proteins for DNA binding, nicking, hairpin formation, and joining. We found several amino acids outside of the canonical nonamer-binding domain that are critical for DNA binding, several step arrest mutants with defects in nicking or hairpin formation, and four RAG-1 mutants defective specifically for joining. Analysis of coding joints formed by some of these mutants revealed excessive deletions, frequent use of short sequence homologies, and unusually long palindromic junctional inserts, known as P nucleotides, that result from aberrant hairpin opening. These features characterize junctions found in scid mice, which are deficient for the catalytic subunit of DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PKcs), suggesting that the RAG proteins and DNA-PKcs perform overlapping functions in coding joint formation. Interestingly, the amino acids that are altered in 12 of our mutants are also mutated in human inherited immunodeficiency syndromes. Our analysis of these mutants provides insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying these disorders.

A recombinase diversified: new functions of the RAG proteins

The RAG proteins were long thought to serve merely as a nuclease, initiating recombination by cleaving DNA. Recent work has shown, however, that these proteins are essential for many steps in the recombination pathway, such as opening hairpins and joining broken DNA ends, and that they can also act as a transposase, targeting distorted DNA structures such as hairpins.