Bacterial Prostatitis: Bacterial Virulence, Clinical Outcomes, and New Directions

Physiological drivers of pks+ E. coli in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a significant global health challenge, with rising incidence, particularly among individuals under 50. Increasing evidence highlights the gut microbiota as key contributors to CRC development, with certain oncogenic bacteria influencing cancer initiation, progression, and therapy response. Among these is pks+ Escherichia coli, which produces colibactin, a genotoxic compound that induces DNA damage and leaves a distinct mutational signature in healthy individuals and CRC patients. While research has focused on its genotoxic effects, this review examines the kinetics of colibactin-induced mutations and the epithelial and environmental changes that promote E. coli expansion and colibactin exposure. We also explore the broader role of pks+ E. coli in cancer initiation and progression beyond genotoxicity, and discuss potential therapeutic approaches.

All Properties of Infertility Microbiome in a Review Article

BACKGROUND

The microbiome is crucial for many physiological processes, including immunity, metabolism, and reproduction.

AIMS

This review aims to contribute to a detailed understanding of the microbiome of the genital tract, which can lead to better management of dysbiosis and reproductive disorders.

METHODS

Data from the four international information databases Medline, Scopus, Embase, and Google Scholar. The search strategy was based on the combination of the following terms: "microbiota," "microbiome," "microfilm," "microflora," "fertility," or "infertility."

RESULT

The advent of next-generation sequencing-based technologies during the last decade has revealed the presence of microbial communities in nearly every part of the human body, including the reproductive system. Several studies have shown significant differences between the microbiota of the vagina and endometrium, as well as other parts of the upper genital tract.

DISCUSSION

The human microbiome plays a critical role in determining a person's health state, and the microbiome of the genital tract may impact fertility potential before and after assisted reproductive treatments (ARTs).

CONCLUSION

To completely understand the role of the microbiome, future research should focus not only on the description of microbiota but also on the interaction between bacteria, the production of biofilms, and the interaction of microorganisms with human cells.

Multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli causing canine pyometra and urinary tract infections are genetically related but distinct from those causing prostatic abscesses

Despite extensive characterisation of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) causing urinary tract infections (UTIs), the genetic background of non-urinary extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) in companion animals remains inadequately understood. In this study, we characterised virulence traits of 104 E. coli isolated from canine pyometra (n = 61) and prostatic abscesses (PAs) (n = 38), and bloodstream infections (BSIs) in dogs (n = 2), and cats (n = 3). A stronger association with UPEC of pyometra strains in comparison to PA strains was revealed. Notably, 44 isolates exhibited resistance to third-generation cephalosporins and/or fluoroquinolones, 15 were extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producers. Twelve multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains, isolated from pyometra (n = 4), PAs (n = 5), and BSIs (n = 3), along with 7 previously characterised UPEC strains from dogs and cats, were sequenced. Genomic characteristics revealed that MDR E. coli associated with UTIs, pyometra, and BSIs belonged to international high-risk E. coli clones, including sequence type (ST) 38, ST131, ST617, ST648, and ST1193. However, PA strains belonged to distinct lineages, including ST12, ST44, ST457, ST744, and ST13037. The coreSNPs, cgMLST, and pan-genome illustrated intra-clonal variations within the same ST from different sources. The high-risk ST131 and ST1193 (phylogroup B2) contained high numbers of ExPEC virulence genes on pathogenicity islands, predominating in pyometra and UTI. Hybrid MDR/virulence IncF multi-replicon plasmids, containing aerobactin genes, were commonly found in non-B2 phylogroups from all sources. These findings offer genomic insights into non-urinary ExPEC, highlighting its potential for invasive infections in pets beyond UTIs, particularly with regards to high-risk global clones.

Causal relationship between gut microbiota and prostate cancer contributes to the gut-prostate axis: insights from a Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

Changes in gut microbiota abundance have been linked to prostate cancer development. However, the causality of the gut-prostate axis remains unclear.

METHODS

The genome-wide association study (GWAS) data for gut microbiota sourced from MiBioGen (n = 14,306), alongside prostate cancer summary data from PRACTICAL (n = 140,254) and FinnGen Consortium (n = 133,164). Inverse-variance-weighted (IVW) was mainly used to compute odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (Cl), after diligently scrutinizing potential sources of heterogeneity and horizontal pleiotropy via the rigorous utilization of Cochran's Q test, the MR-PRESSO method, and MR-Egger. We used meta-analysis methods in random effects to combine the Mendelian randomization (MR) estimates from the two sources.

RESULTS

The pooled analyses of MR results show that genus Eubacterium fissicatena (OR = 1.07, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.13, P = 0.011) and genus Odoribacter (OR = 1.14, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.27, P = 0.025) were positively associated with prostate cancer. However, genus Adlercreutzia (OR = 0.89, 95% CI 0.83 to 0.96, P = 0.002), Roseburia (OR = 0.90, 95% CI 0.83 to 0.99, P = 0.03), Holdemania (OR = 0.92, 95% CI 0.86 to 0.97, P = 0.005), Flavonifractor (OR = 0.85, 95% CI 0.74 to 0.98, P = 0.024) and Allisonella (OR = 0.93, 95% CI 0.89 to 0.98, P = 0.011) seems to be a protective factor for prostate cancer. Sensitivity analysis found no significant heterogeneity, horizontal pleiotropy, or reverse causal links in all causal associations.

CONCLUSION

This MR study lends support to a causal relationship between genetically predicted gut microbiota and prostate cancer. Research on the gut-prostate axis, along with further multi-omics analyses, holds significant implications for the prevention and treatment of prostate cancer.

Microbiology and immune mechanisms associated with male infertility

Up to 50% of infertility is caused by the male side. Varicocele, orchitis, prostatitis, oligospermia, asthenospermia, and azoospermia are common causes of impaired male reproductive function and male infertility. In recent years, more and more studies have shown that microorganisms play an increasingly important role in the occurrence of these diseases. This review will discuss the microbiological changes associated with male infertility from the perspective of etiology, and how microorganisms affect the normal function of the male reproductive system through immune mechanisms. Linking male infertility with microbiome and immunomics can help us recognize the immune response under different disease states, providing more targeted immune target therapy for these diseases, and even the possibility of combined immunotherapy and microbial therapy for male infertility.

The effect of a spontaneous induction prophage, phi458, on biofilm formation and virulence in avian pathogenic Escherichia coli

Prophage sequences are present in most bacterial genomes and account for up to 20% of its host genome. Integration of temperate phages may have an impact on the expression of host genes, while some prophages could turn into the lytic cycle and affect bacterial host biological characteristics. We investigated the role of spontaneous induction prophages in avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), which is the causative agent of avian colibacillosis in poultry, and considered a potential zoonotic bacterium related to the fact it serves as an armory of extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli. We found that APEC strain DE458 had a high spontaneous induction rate in vivo and in vitro. The released phage particles, phi458, were isolated, purified, and sequenced, and the deletion mutant, DE458Δphi458, was constructed and characterized. Biofilm formation of DE458Δphi458 was strongly decreased compared to that of the wild-type strain (p < 0.01). In addition, while the addition of DNase (100 μg/ml) did not affect prophage release but could digest eDNA, it significantly reduced the biofilm production of DE458 biofilm to a level close to that of DE458Δphi458. Compared to DE458, the adhesion and invasion abilities of DE458Δphi458 increased by approximately 6-20 times (p < 0.05). The virulence of DE458Δphi458 was enhanced by approximately 10-fold in chickens based on a 50% lethal dose. Furthermore, avian infection assays showed that the bacterial loads of DE458Δphi458 in the lung and liver were increased by 16.5- and 10-fold (p < 0.05), respectively, compared with those of the WT strain. The qRT-PCR revealed that deletion of phi458 led to upregulation of type I fimbriate-related gene fimH and curli-related gene csgC by 3- and 2.8-fold, respectively (p < 0.01). Our study revealed that phi458 promoted biofilm formation by spontaneously inducing and decreasing virulence by repressing virulence genes.

[Acute prostatitis associated with noncancerous prostate at the Lubumbashi University Clinics: epidemioclinical and therapeutic features]

Introduction

les prostatites aiguës sont une entité fréquente en urologie. L'objectif de cette étude était d'analyser les aspects épidémio-cliniques et thérapeutiques des prostatites aiguës sur des prostates non tumorales aux Cliniques Universitaires de Lubumbashi.

Méthodes

il s'est agi d'une étude descriptive transversale et rétrospective rapportant une série de 25 patients souffrant de prostatite aiguë documentée et pris en charge aux Cliniques Universitaires de Lubumbashi durant une période de quatre ans soit de 2015 à 2018. Tous les patients porteurs de tumeurs prostatiques ont été exclus de notre étude. Les données ont été recueillies sur base d´une fiche d´enquête reprenant différents paramètres d´étude répartis en 3 catégories à savoir les données épidémiologiques comprenant l´âge, la période d´étude, la résidence, les données cliniques reprenant les signes subjectifs, les signes objectifs, l´état général, les éléments du toucher rectal ainsi que les données paracliniques réparties en laboratoires et imagerie.

Résultats

la prostatite aiguë sur prostate non tumorale a représenté 1,27% de l´ensemble de la pathologie chirurgicale et 7,66% en urologie. La tranche d´âge la plus touchée était celle de 19 à 37 ans avec 64% des cas, l´âge moyen est de 33,16±2,4 ans. Dix-sept patients (68%) étaient suivis en ambulatoires et 8 (32%) en hospitalisation. Sur le plan clinique, la fièvre au-delà de 38,5°celsius était retrouvée chez 15 patients (60%), la dysurie chez 11 patients (44%), rétention aiguë d´urine chez 3 patients (12%), les brulures mictionnelles chez 8 patients (32%), syndrome douloureux chez 21 patients (84%), la sensibilité prostatique au toucher rectal chez 18 patients (72%). Sur le plan de l´imagerie, l´échographie a été le seul examen réalisé et ce, chez 16 patients (64%). Sur le plan biologique, le bilan inflammatoire était quasi-systématique chez tous nos patients (100%) comprenant la NFS, la VS, la CRP; l´hémoculture réalisée chez 4 patients (16%) parmi lesquels 3 étaient positives. Tous nos patients avaient réalisé l´examen cytobactériologique des urines ou des sécrétions prostatiques recueillies par un massage prostatique. La culture d´urine était stérile chez 6 patients (24%) et positive chez 19 patients (76%) avec Escherichia coli comme germe le plus retrouvé, chez 16 patients sur les 19 (84,21%). Tous nos patients ont été mis sous anti-inflammatoire en intra-rectale et les fluoroquinolones ont été les antibiotiques les plus utilisés dans notre série chez 18 patients (64%) parmi lesquels 12 en monothérapie. Six cas sur les 25 (24%) étaient associés à une orchi-épidydimite. La durée de traitement allait de 2 semaines à 4 semaines avec comme critère d´arrêt de traitement soit la stérilisation des sécrétions ou des urines soit la disparition de la leucocyturie. Ainsi, sur les 19 patients avec culture positive à l´admission, 14 ont réalisé une deuxième culture (73,68%) à 2 semaines de traitement parmi lesquels 3 (12%) étaient encore positives et ont dû réaliser une troisième culture 4 semaines après le début de traitement. L´évolution était bonne chez 22 patients (88%) avec une rémission complète des signes cliniques et biologiques et 3 cas (12%) ont évolué vers une persistance des signes et un passage à la chronicité, aucun cas d´évolution vers un abcès prostatique.

Conclusion

la prostatite aiguë sur prostate non tumorale reste une entité nosologique urologique très préoccupante dont la prise en charge doit être rigoureuse d´autant plus que la population à risque est celle en période d´intense activité sexuelle. L´usage de l´échographie endorectale, la proscription du massage prostatique doivent s´intégrer dans la prise en charge aux cliniques universitaires de Lubumbashi.

Screening for chronic prostatitis pathogens using high-throughput next-generation sequencing

BACKGROUND

The pathogens responsible for chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS; NIH category III) are not currently known. the present study utilized high-throughput next-generation sequencing to screen for potential pathogens associated with NIH category III CP (CP III).

METHODS

This study included 33 patients with CP III and 30 healthy men, from which one sample each of urethral secretions and expressed prostatic secretion (EPS) was collected. High-throughput next-generation sequencing was performed to detect the sequence variations and the relative abundance of the bacterial 16S ribosomal variable region and fungal internal transcribed spacer region in all samples. Bioinformatics software and databases were used for data analysis, and differences with P < .05 were considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) cluster analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), and Spearman's rank correlation showed that the microbial compositions of the urethral secretions and EPS collected from the same subject were essentially the same.

CONCLUSIONS

No potential pathogens were identified in diagnosed patients with CP III. The EPS may be free from bacteria before and after infection. Changes in the urinary tract microbiome may disrupt the microecological balance of the urinary system, thereby leading to CP III. Conversely, the true pathogens of CP III may not be prokaryotic or eukaryotic microorganisms, Future research may involve the evaluation of noncellular microbes.

The Bladder is Not Sterile: an Update on the Urinary Microbiome

Purpose of Review

The article discusses (1) techniques used to study bacterial urinary microbiota; (2) existence of non-bacterial urinary microbiota; (3) associations between changes in urinary microbiota and various benign lower urinary tract disorders.

Recent Findings

Urine harbors a diverse microbial community that resides within it. A multitude of studies have identified differences in these communities associated with urologic conditions, suggesting that microbial communities may maintain normal bladder homeostasis. Technological advances in analytic approaches have improved our understanding of the urinary microbiome. The choice of urine sampling method (voided, catheterized, or aspirated) will significantly influence microbiome findings. Sex and age highly influence urinary microbiota; in addition to rigorous inclusion criteria, microbial studies must be sufficiently powered to overcome the substantial interindividual variability of urinary microbiota. Regardless of these complicating factors, studies have identified microbial patterns correlating with both urologic diagnoses and treatment responses.

Summary

Without a clear understanding of the variability of and exogenous influences on the urinary microbiota in the absence of disease, it has been challenging to reveal the microbial patterns responsible for disease pathophysiology. Host mechanisms in response to the urinary microbiome are also poorly understood. Additional research can address whether the manipulation of urinary microbiota will benefit lower urinary tract health.

Glycosylation products in prostate diseases

Although prostate cancer is notable for its high incidence and mortality in men worldwide, its identification remains a challenge. Biomarkers have been useful tools for the specific detection of prostate cancer. Unfortunately, benign prostate diseases cause similar alterations in screening assays thus reducing the potential for early and specific diagnosis. Changes in glycan and glycoprotein expression have often been associated with the onset and progression of cancer. Abnormal glycans and glycoproteins have been reported as new biomarkers of prostate metabolism that can distinguish benign prostate disease and cancer in non-aggressive and aggressive stages. Carbohydrate-binding proteins known as lectins have been valuable tools to detect these changes, investigate potential biomarkers and improve our understanding aberrant glycosylation in cancer. Here we review progress in elucidating prostate disease and discuss the roles of glycans in the differential detection of benign and cancerous prostate disease. We also summarize the lectin-based tools for detecting glycosylation changes.

Evaluation of influence of the UPOINT-guided multimodal therapy in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome on dynamic values NIH-CPSI: a prospective, controlled, comparative study

BACKGROUND

The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of UPOINT-guided (Urinary, Psychosocial, Organ-specific, Infection, Neurologic/systemic, Tenderness of skeletal muscles) multimodal therapy in patients with chronic prostatitis (CP)/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS) on the dynamic values of the National Institutes of Health Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index (NIH-CPSI) score.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In our study we investigated 110 patients aged 26-68 years with CP/CPPS. We performed digital rectal examination (DRE), pre- and post-massage test (PPMT) urine culture, urine analysis, transrectal ultrasound investigation of prostate, antibiotic susceptibility testing. We divided the patients into the intervention group and the control group which was followed up without any therapy. For the intervention group we offered multimodal therapy based on each predominated positive phenotype. For the urinary phenotype, patients in intervention group received 10 mg alfuzosin. For organ-specific and tenderness domains, the patients of the intervention group received 63 mg Cernilton and 1 g Quercetin. For infection control, the patients of the intervention group received antimicrobial agents according to the results of the post-massage urine culture, antibiotic susceptibility testing and a high level of contamination >105 colony-forming units (CFU)/ml. Microbiological assessment of PPMT urine culture was conducted with aerobic and anaerobic methods of cultivation.

RESULTS

The 110 patients had an average age of 43.9 ± 11.1 years and a median duration of symptoms of 6.21 ± 1.8 months. Of these, 11 patients did not complete the trial and therefore in quantitative terms, the distribution of patients was as follows: 54 in the intervention group and 45 in the control group. The average total NIH-CPSI score before treatment was 29.8 ± 6.1 in both groups. The mean NIH-CPSI of the pain, urinary, and quality of life (QOL) subscores before treatment was 15.1 ± 3.0, 7.4 ± 1.4 and 8.1 ± 2.1, respectively in both groups. After 6 weeks the PPMT urine culture of patients of the intervention group showed the absence or low-level contamination of microorganisms. After conducting the treatment, the mean total NIH-CPSI score in the intervention and control groups was 13.9 ± 2.8 (p = 0.025) and 29.8 ± 5.8 (p = 0.18), respectively. The average NIH-CPSI pain subscore in the intervention and control group after treatment was 6.7 ± 1.4 (p = 0.018) and 15.1 ± 2.8 (p = 0.21), respectively. The mean NIH-CPSI urinary subscore after treatment in the intervention and control group was 3.22 ± 1.07 (p = 0.045) and 7.4 ± 1.2 (p = 0.15), respectively. The average NIH-CPSI QOL subscore after treatment in the intervention and control group was 3.87 ± 1.28 (p = 0.015) and 8.1 ± 1.9 (p = 0.35). After multimodal therapy, the prevalence of different UPOINT-positive domains in the patients of both intervention groups did not exceed 14%.

CONCLUSIONS

The UPOINT clinical phenotypes significantly changed after multimodal treatment, including antibiotics, phytotherapy and α-blockers in patients with CP/CPPS. This combination of treatment showed a decreasing total NIH-CPSI score and an elevation of QOL in patients.

Acute bacterial prostatitis in an adolescent patient following blunt trauma

Acute bacterial prostatitis is a common disease among adults. Acute bacterial prostatitis in the pediatric population is rare with only a few case reports in the literature. This case highlights an unusual presentation of prostatitis in a 16-year-old who presented with suprapubic pain and hematuria following blunt trauma to the lower abdomen.

Oral Fosfomycin for the Treatment of Acute and Chronic Bacterial Prostatitis Caused by Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli

Acute and chronic bacterial prostatitis in outpatients is commonly treated with oral fluoroquinolones; however, the worldwide dissemination of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli has resulted in therapeutic failures with fluoroquinolones. We reviewed the literature regarding the use of oral fosfomycin in the treatment of acute and chronic prostatitis caused by MDR E. coli. All English-language references on PubMed from 1986 to June 2017, inclusive, were reviewed from the search “fosfomycin prostatitis.” Fosfomycin demonstrates potent in vitro activity against a variety of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli genotypes/phenotypes including ciprofloxacin-resistant, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole-resistant, extended-spectrum β-lactamase- (ESBL-) producing, and MDR isolates. Fosfomycin attains therapeutic concentrations (≥4 μg/g) in uninflamed prostatic tissue and maintains a high prostate/plasma ratio up to 17 hours after oral administration. Oral fosfomycin's clinical cure rates in the treatment of bacterial prostatitis caused by antimicrobial-resistant E. coli ranged from 50 to 77% with microbiological eradication rates of >50%. An oral regimen of fosfomycin tromethamine of 3 g·q 24 h for one week followed by 3 g·q 48 h for a total treatment duration of 6–12 weeks appeared to be effective. Oral fosfomycin may represent an efficacious and safe treatment for acute and chronic prostatitis caused by MDR E. coli.

Immunological Tolerance, Pregnancy, and Preeclampsia: The Roles of Semen Microbes and the Father

Although it is widely considered, in many cases, to involve two separable stages (poor placentation followed by oxidative stress/inflammation), the precise originating causes of preeclampsia (PE) remain elusive. We have previously brought together some of the considerable evidence that a (dormant) microbial component is commonly a significant part of its etiology. However, apart from recognizing, consistent with this view, that the many inflammatory markers of PE are also increased in infection, we had little to say about immunity, whether innate or adaptive. In addition, we focused on the gut, oral and female urinary tract microbiomes as the main sources of the infection. We here marshall further evidence for an infectious component in PE, focusing on the immunological tolerance characteristic of pregnancy, and the well-established fact that increased exposure to the father's semen assists this immunological tolerance. As well as these benefits, however, semen is not sterile, microbial tolerance mechanisms may exist, and we also review the evidence that semen may be responsible for inoculating the developing conceptus (and maybe the placenta) with microbes, not all of which are benign. It is suggested that when they are not, this may be a significant cause of PE. A variety of epidemiological and other evidence is entirely consistent with this, not least correlations between semen infection, infertility and PE. Our view also leads to a series of other, testable predictions. Overall, we argue for a significant paternal role in the development of PE through microbial infection of the mother via insemination.

Differential expression of immune factor between patients with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome and the healthy volunteers

PURPOSE

Immune mechanisms have been hypothesized to contribute to the development of CP/CPPS. In this study, we investigated the differential expression of immune factors between patients with CP/CPPS and healthy volunteers.

METHODS

This study was registered in Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry. Healthy volunteers and patients with CP/CPPS were enrolled in this study. The inclusion criteria for patients were below: (1) aged 18-45 years old; (2) prostatitis-related syndrome longer than 3 months; (3) normal routine urine culture and negative bacterial culture in prostatic fluid. Patients were further classified into two groups: types IIIA and IIIB CP/CPPS according to the results of EPS routine test. Serum immune markers include IgA, IgM, IgG, CD4⁺ and CD8⁺.

RESULTS

There are total 23 CP/CPPS patients, including 12 type IIIB and 11 type IIIA. Relatively, there are 26 healthy volunteers. The serum levels of IgG were higher in CP/CPPS patients compared to healthy volunteers (1141.2 ± 204.3 vs 1031.9 ± 173.7 mg/L, p = 0.045), while the serum levels of CD8⁺ were lower in CP/CPPS patients compared to healthy volunteers (492.8 ± 185.6 vs 640.0 ± 246.8 cells/μL, p = 0.021). Furthermore, serum levels of IgG were higher in patients with IIIA CP/CPPS compared to those with IIIB (1244.3 ± 151.6 vs 1054.3 ± 209.3 mg/L, p = 0.023).

CONCLUSIONS

Differential levels of IgG and CD8⁺ between CPPS patients and healthy volunteers suggest a contributing role of immune mechanisms to the development of CP/CPPS; and IgG may play an important role in inflammatory CPPS. Clinical Study registration number ACTRN12613000792729.

The Adherent/Invasive Escherichia coli Strain LF82 Invades and Persists in Human Prostate Cell Line RWPE-1, Activating a Strong Inflammatory Response

Adherent/invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC) strains have recently been receiving increased attention because they are more prevalent and persistent in the intestine of Crohn's disease (CD) patients than in healthy subjects. Since AIEC strains show a high percentage of similarity to extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC), neonatal meningitis-associated E. coli (NMEC), and uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) strains, here we compared AIEC strain LF82 with a UPEC isolate (strain EC73) to assess whether LF82 would be able to infect prostate cells as an extraintestinal target. The virulence phenotypes of both strains were determined by using the RWPE-1 prostate cell line. The results obtained indicated that LF82 and EC73 are able to adhere to, invade, and survive within prostate epithelial cells. Invasion was confirmed by immunofluorescence and electron microscopy. Moreover, cytochalasin D and colchicine strongly inhibited bacterial uptake of both strains, indicating the involvement of actin microfilaments and microtubules in host cell invasion. Moreover, both strains belong to phylogenetic group B2 and are strong biofilm producers. In silico analysis reveals that LF82 shares with UPEC strains several virulence factors: namely, type 1 pili, the group II capsule, the vacuolating autotransporter toxin, four iron uptake systems, and the pathogenic island (PAI). Furthermore, compared to EC73, LF82 induces in RWPE-1 cells a marked increase of phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and of NF-κB already by 5 min postinfection, thus inducing a strong inflammatory response. Our in vitro data support the hypothesis that AIEC strains might play a role in prostatitis, and, by exploiting host-cell signaling pathways controlling the innate immune response, likely facilitate bacterial multiplication and dissemination within the male genitourinary tract.