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Marti H, Biggel M, Shima K, Onorini D, Rupp J, Charette SJ, Borel N. Chlamydia suis displays high transformation capacity with complete cloning vector integration into the chromosomal rrn-nqrF plasticity zone. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0237823. [PMID: 37882558 PMCID: PMC10715202 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02378-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The obligate intracellular Chlamydia genus contains many pathogens with a negative impact on global health and economy. Despite recent progress, there is still a lack of genetic tools limiting our understanding of these complex bacteria. This study provides new insights into genetic manipulation of Chlamydia with the opportunistic porcine pathogen Chlamydia suis, the only chlamydial species naturally harboring an antibiotic resistance gene, originally obtained by horizontal gene transfer. C. suis is transmissible to humans, posing a potential public health concern. We report that C. suis can take up vectors that lack the native plasmid, a requirement for most chlamydial transformation systems described to date. Additionally, we show that C. trachomatis, the most common cause for bacterial sexually transmitted infections and infectious blindness worldwide, can be transformed with C. suis vectors. Finally, the chromosomal region that harbors the resistance gene of C. suis is highly susceptible to complete vector integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Biggel
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kensuke Shima
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Delia Onorini
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jan Rupp
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Steve J. Charette
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Bioinformatics, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Dembek ZF, Mothershead JL, Owens AN, Chekol T, Wu A. Psittacosis: An Underappreciated and Often Undiagnosed Disease. Pathogens 2023; 12:1165. [PMID: 37764973 PMCID: PMC10536718 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The bacterial agent Chlamydia psittaci, and the resulting disease of psittacosis, is a little-known and underappreciated infectious disease by healthcare practitioners and in public health in general. C. psittaci infections can cause significant psittacosis outbreaks, with person-to-person transmission documented in the last decade. In this publication, we review the pathogen and its disease, as well as examine the potential for genetic manipulation in this organism to create a more deadly pathogen. Recent disease surveys indicate that currently, the highest incidences of human disease exist in Australia, Germany and the UK. We recommend the universal public health reporting of C. psittaci and psittacosis disease and increasing the promotion of public health awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zygmunt F. Dembek
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Support to DTRA Technical Reachback, Columbus, OH 43201, USA; (Z.F.D.); (T.C.)
| | - Jerry L. Mothershead
- Applied Research Associates (ARA), Support to DTRA Technical Reachback, Albuquerque, NM 87110, USA;
| | - Akeisha N. Owens
- Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA), Fort Belvoir, VA 22060, USA;
| | - Tesema Chekol
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Support to DTRA Technical Reachback, Columbus, OH 43201, USA; (Z.F.D.); (T.C.)
| | - Aiguo Wu
- Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA), Fort Belvoir, VA 22060, USA;
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Fisher DJ, Beare PA. Recent advances in genetic systems in obligate intracellular human-pathogenic bacteria. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1202245. [PMID: 37404720 PMCID: PMC10315504 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1202245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to genetically manipulate a pathogen is fundamental to discovering factors governing host-pathogen interactions at the molecular level and is critical for devising treatment and prevention strategies. While the genetic "toolbox" for many important bacterial pathogens is extensive, approaches for modifying obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens were classically limited due in part to the uniqueness of their obligatory lifestyles. Many researchers have confronted these challenges over the past two and a half decades leading to the development of multiple approaches to construct plasmid-bearing recombinant strains and chromosomal gene inactivation and deletion mutants, along with gene-silencing methods enabling the study of essential genes. This review will highlight seminal genetic achievements and recent developments (past 5 years) for Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia spp., Chlamydia spp., and Coxiella burnetii including progress being made for the still intractable Orientia tsutsugamushi. Alongside commentary of the strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches, future research directions will be discussed to include methods for C. burnetii that should have utility in the other obligate intracellular bacteria. Collectively, the future appears bright for unraveling the molecular pathogenic mechanisms of these significant pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek J. Fisher
- School of Biological Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, United States
| | - Paul A. Beare
- Rocky Mountain Laboratory, National Institute of Health, Hamilton, MT, United States
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Ölander M, Sixt BS. Bringing genetics to heretofore intractable obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens: Chlamydia and beyond. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010669. [PMID: 35901011 PMCID: PMC9333220 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Ölander
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Barbara S. Sixt
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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Chlamydia psittaci Induces Autophagy in Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells via PERK and IRE1α, but Not ATF6 Pathway. Infect Immun 2022; 90:e0007922. [PMID: 35435728 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00079-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia psittaci is an important pathogen that causes chronic and atypical pneumonia in humans. Autophagy and the unfolded protein response (UPR) are important mechanisms for regulating the growth of infectious parasitic pathogens in living cells. Here, we explored whether C. psittaci infection induced autophagy via the UPR and the effect of these cellular responses on the survival and replication of C. psittaci in human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEs). Not only were the numbers of autophagosomes and the expression of LC3-II and Beclin1 increased following C. psittaci infection of HBEs, but also the expression of p62 (also called sequestosome-1) was downregulated. Moreover, after C. psittaci infection, the UPR and UPR sensors PERK/eIF2α and IRE1α/XBP1 were activated, but not the ATF6 pathway. When either Bip siRNA was used to block normal initiation of the UPR, or activation of the PERK and IER1α pathways was blocked with specific inhibitors GSK2606414 and 4μ8C, the level of autophagy caused by C. psittaci infection was significantly inhibited. Furthermore, blocking activation of the UPR and associated pathways significantly reduced the number of C. psittaci inclusions. Our research suggests that the UPR, via the PERK and IRE1α, but not ATF6 signaling pathways, regulates HBE-cell autophagy induced by C. psittaci infection and the replication of C. psittaci.
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Marti H, Suchland RJ, Rockey DD. The Impact of Lateral Gene Transfer in Chlamydia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:861899. [PMID: 35321311 PMCID: PMC8936141 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.861899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Lateral gene transfer (LGT) facilitates many processes in bacterial ecology and pathogenesis, especially regarding pathogen evolution and the spread of antibiotic resistance across species. The obligate intracellular chlamydiae, which cause a range of diseases in humans and animals, were historically thought to be highly deficient in this process. However, research over the past few decades has demonstrated that this was not the case. The first reports of homologous recombination in the Chlamydiaceae family were published in the early 1990s. Later, the advent of whole-genome sequencing uncovered clear evidence for LGT in the evolution of the Chlamydiaceae, although the acquisition of tetracycline resistance in Chlamydia (C.) suis is the only recent instance of interphylum LGT. In contrast, genome and in vitro studies have shown that intraspecies DNA exchange occurs frequently and can even cross species barriers between closely related chlamydiae, such as between C. trachomatis, C. muridarum, and C. suis. Additionally, whole-genome analysis led to the identification of various DNA repair and recombination systems in C. trachomatis, but the exact machinery of DNA uptake and homologous recombination in the chlamydiae has yet to be fully elucidated. Here, we reviewed the current state of knowledge concerning LGT in Chlamydia by focusing on the effect of homologous recombination on the chlamydial genome, the recombination machinery, and its potential as a genetic tool for Chlamydia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Hanna Marti,
| | - Robert J. Suchland
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Daniel D. Rockey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
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O'Neill CE, Skilton RJ, Forster J, Cleary DW, Pearson SA, Lampe DJ, Thomson NR, Clarke IN. An inducible transposon mutagenesis approach for the intracellular human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis. Wellcome Open Res 2021; 6:312. [PMID: 35087955 PMCID: PMC8767425 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16068.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Chlamydia trachomatis is a prolific human pathogen that can cause serious long-term conditions if left untreated. Recent developments in Chlamydia genetics have opened the door to conducting targeted and random mutagenesis experiments to identify gene function. In the present study, an inducible transposon mutagenesis approach was developed for C. trachomatis using a self-replicating vector to deliver the transposon-transposase cassette - a significant step towards our ultimate aim of achieving saturation mutagenesis of the Chlamydia genome. Methods: The low transformation efficiency of C. trachomatis necessitated the design of a self-replicating vector carrying the transposon mutagenesis cassette (i.e. the Himar-1 transposon containing the beta lactamase gene as well as a hyperactive transposase gene under inducible control of the tet promoter system with the addition of a riboswitch). Chlamydia transformed with this vector (pSW2-RiboA-C9Q) were induced at 24 hours post-infection. Through dual control of transcription and translation, basal expression of transposase was tightly regulated to stabilise the plasmid prior to transposition. Results: Here we present the preliminary sequencing results of transposon mutant pools of both C. trachomatis biovars, using two plasmid-free representatives: urogenital strain C. trachomatis SWFP- and the lymphogranuloma venereum isolate L2(25667R). DNA sequencing libraries were generated and analysed using Oxford Nanopore Technologies' MinION technology. This enabled 'proof of concept' for the methods as an initial low-throughput screen of mutant libraries; the next step is to employ high throughput sequencing to assess saturation mutagenesis. Conclusions: This significant advance provides an efficient method for assaying C. trachomatis gene function and will enable the identification of the essential gene set of C. trachomatis. In the long-term, the methods described herein will add to the growing knowledge of chlamydial infection biology leading to the discovery of novel drug or vaccine targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colette E. O'Neill
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, Hampshire, SO166YD, UK
| | - Rachel J. Skilton
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, Hampshire, SO166YD, UK
| | - Jade Forster
- Cancer Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK
| | - David W. Cleary
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, Hampshire, SO166YD, UK
| | - Sarah A. Pearson
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, Hampshire, SO166YD, UK
| | - David J. Lampe
- Department of Biological Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15116, USA
| | - Nicholas R. Thomson
- Bacterial Genomics and Evolution, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Ian N. Clarke
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, Hampshire, SO166YD, UK
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Banerjee A, Nelson DE. The growing repertoire of genetic tools for dissecting chlamydial pathogenesis. Pathog Dis 2021; 79:ftab025. [PMID: 33930127 PMCID: PMC8112481 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftab025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple species of obligate intracellular bacteria in the genus Chlamydia are important veterinary and/or human pathogens. These pathogens all share similar biphasic developmental cycles and transition between intracellular vegetative reticulate bodies and infectious elementary forms, but vary substantially in their host preferences and pathogenic potential. A lack of tools for genetic engineering of these organisms has long been an impediment to the study of their biology and pathogenesis. However, the refinement of approaches developed in C. trachomatis over the last 10 years, and adaptation of some of these approaches to other Chlamydia spp. in just the last few years, has opened exciting new possibilities for studying this ubiquitous group of important pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arkaprabha Banerjee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - David E Nelson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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A Same-Genus Screening Approach Reveals Novel Effectors and New Possibilities for Investigating Chlamydia Pathogenesis. J Bacteriol 2021; 203:JB.00157-21. [PMID: 33753471 PMCID: PMC8117527 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00157-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular pathogens that rely on secreted effector proteins to establish their intracellular niche. In this issue of the Journal of Bacteriology, Yanatori et al describe a screen for C. pneumoniae effectors, performed in C. trachomatis, which identified several new proteins that are translocated during infection (Yanatori, Miura et al. 2021). More broadly, they demonstrate how new genetic approaches in C. trachomatis can be used to characterize the virulence factors of other Chlamydia species.
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Favaroni A, Trinks A, Weber M, Hegemann JH, Schnee C. Pmp Repertoires Influence the Different Infectious Potential of Avian and Mammalian Chlamydia psittaci Strains. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:656209. [PMID: 33854490 PMCID: PMC8039305 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.656209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia psittaci is the etiological agent of chlamydiosis in birds and can be transmitted to humans, causing severe systemic disease. C. psittaci infects a broad range of hosts; strains are isolated not only from birds but also from mammals, where they seem to have a reduced infectious and zoonotic potential. Comparative analysis of chlamydial genomes revealed the coding sequences of polymorphic membrane proteins (Pmps) to be highly variable regions. Pmps are characterized as adhesins in C. trachomatis and C. pneumoniae and are immunoreactive proteins in several Chlamydia species. Thus, Pmps are considered to be associated with tissue tropism and pathogenicity. C. psittaci harbors 21 Pmps. We hypothesize that the different infectious potential and host tropism of avian and mammalian C. psittaci strains is dependent on differences in their Pmp repertoires. In this study, we experimentally confirmed the different virulence of avian and mammalian strains, by testing the survival rate of infected embryonated eggs and chlamydiae dissemination in the embryos. Further, we investigated the possible involvement of Pmps in host tropism. Analysis of pmp sequences from 10 C. psittaci strains confirmed a high degree of variation, but no correlation with host tropism was identified. However, comparison of Pmp expression profiles from different strains showed that Pmps of the G group are the most variably expressed, also among avian and mammalian strains. To investigate their functions, selected Pmps were recombinantly produced from one avian and one mammalian representative strain and their adhesion abilities and relevance for the infection of C. psittaci strains in avian and mammalian cells were tested. For the first time, we identified Pmp22D, Pmp8G, and OmcB as relevant adhesins, essential during infection of C. psittaci strains in general. Moreover, we propose Pmp17G as a possible key player for host adaptation, as it could only bind to and influence the infection in avian cells, but it had no relevant impact towards infection in mammalian cells. These data support the hypothesis that distinct Pmp repertoires in combination with specific host factors may contribute to host tropism of C. psittaci strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Favaroni
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
| | - Alexander Trinks
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Weber
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
| | - Johannes H Hegemann
- Institute of Functional Microbial Genomics, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Christiane Schnee
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
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Longbottom D, Livingstone M, Ribeca P, Beeckman DSA, van der Ende A, Pannekoek Y, Vanrompay D. Whole genome de novo sequencing and comparative genomic analyses suggests that Chlamydia psittaci strain 84/2334 should be reclassified as Chlamydia abortus species. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:159. [PMID: 33676404 PMCID: PMC7937271 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07477-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlamydia abortus and Chlamydia psittaci are important pathogens of livestock and avian species, respectively. While C. abortus is recognized as descended from C. psittaci species, there is emerging evidence of strains that are intermediary between the two species, suggesting they are recent evolutionary ancestors of C. abortus. Such strains include C. psittaci strain 84/2334 that was isolated from a parrot. Our aim was to classify this strain by sequencing its genome and explore its evolutionary relationship to both C. abortus and C. psittaci. RESULTS In this study, methods based on multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) of seven housekeeping genes and on typing of five species discriminant proteins showed that strain 84/2334 clustered with C. abortus species. Furthermore, whole genome de novo sequencing of the strain revealed greater similarity to C. abortus in terms of GC content, while 16S rRNA and whole genome phylogenetic analysis, as well as network and recombination analysis showed that the strain clusters more closely with C. abortus strains. The analysis also suggested a closer evolutionary relationship between this strain and the major C. abortus clade, than to two other intermediary avian C. abortus strains or C. psittaci strains. Molecular analyses of genes (polymorphic membrane protein and transmembrane head protein genes) and loci (plasticity zone), found in key virulence-associated regions that exhibit greatest diversity within and between chlamydial species, reveal greater diversity than present in sequenced C. abortus genomes as well as similar features to both C. abortus and C. psittaci species. The strain also possesses an extrachromosomal plasmid, as found in most C. psittaci species but absent from all sequenced classical C. abortus strains. CONCLUSION Overall, the results show that C. psittaci strain 84/2334 clusters very closely with C. abortus strains, and are consistent with the strain being a recent C. abortus ancestral species. This suggests that the strain should be reclassified as C. abortus. Furthermore, the identification of a C. abortus strain bearing an extra-chromosomal plasmid has implications for plasmid-based transformation studies to investigate gene function as well as providing a potential route for the development of a next generation vaccine to protect livestock from C. abortus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Longbottom
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK.
| | - Morag Livingstone
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Paolo Ribeca
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FD, UK
| | - Delphine Sylvie Anne Beeckman
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium.,Current address: BASF Belgium Coordination Center CommV - Innovation Center Gent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arie van der Ende
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yvonne Pannekoek
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daisy Vanrompay
- Department of Animal Science and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
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