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Breban R. Emergence failure of early epidemics: A mathematical modeling approach. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0301415. [PMID: 38809831 PMCID: PMC11135784 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Epidemic or pathogen emergence is the phenomenon by which a poorly transmissible pathogen finds its evolutionary pathway to become a mutant that can cause an epidemic. Many mathematical models of pathogen emergence rely on branching processes. Here, we discuss pathogen emergence using Markov chains, for a more tractable analysis, generalizing previous work by Kendall and Bartlett about disease invasion. We discuss the probability of emergence failure for early epidemics, when the number of infected individuals is small and the number of the susceptible individuals is virtually unlimited. Our formalism addresses both directly transmitted and vector-borne diseases, in the cases where the original pathogen is 1) one step-mutation away from the epidemic strain, and 2) undergoing a long chain of neutral mutations that do not change the epidemiology. We obtain analytic results for the probabilities of emergence failure and two features transcending the transmission mechanism. First, the reproduction number of the original pathogen is determinant for the probability of pathogen emergence, more important than the mutation rate or the transmissibility of the emerged pathogen. Second, the probability of mutation within infected individuals must be sufficiently high for the pathogen undergoing neutral mutations to start an epidemic, the mutation threshold depending again on the basic reproduction number of the original pathogen. Finally, we discuss the parameterization of models of pathogen emergence, using SARS-CoV1 as an example of zoonotic emergence and HIV as an example for the emergence of drug resistance. We also discuss assumptions of our models and implications for epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romulus Breban
- Institut Pasteur, Unité d’Epidémiologie des Maladies Emergentes, Paris, France
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2
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Edward. Comparing and contrasting two United Nations Environment Programme reports on covid-19. SCIENCE IN ONE HEALTH 2022. [PMCID: PMC9635951 DOI: 10.1016/j.soh.2022.100003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Bevilacqua G. The Viral Origin of Human Breast Cancer: From the Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus (MMTV) to the Human Betaretrovirus (HBRV). Viruses 2022; 14:v14081704. [PMID: 36016325 PMCID: PMC9412291 DOI: 10.3390/v14081704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A Human Betaretrovirus (HBRV) has been identified in humans, dating as far back as about 4500 years ago, with a high probability of it being acquired by our species around 10,000 years ago, following a species jump from mice to humans. HBRV is the human homolog of the MMTV (mouse mammary tumor virus), which is the etiological agent of murine mammary tumors. The hypothesis of a HMTV (human mammary tumor virus) was proposed about 50 years ago, and has acquired a solid scientific basis during the last 30 years, with the demonstration of a robust link with breast cancer and with PBC, primary biliary cholangitis. This article summarizes most of what is known about MMTV/HMTV/HBRV since the discovery of MMTV at the beginning of last century, to make evident both the quantity and the quality of the research supporting the existence of HBRV and its pathogenic role. Here, it is sufficient to mention that scientific evidence includes that viral sequences have been identified in breast-cancer samples in a worldwide distribution, that the complete proviral genome has been cloned from breast cancer and patients with PBC, and that saliva contains HBRV, as a possible route of inter-human infection. Controversies that have arisen concerning results obtained from human tissues, many of them outdated by new scientific evidence, are critically discussed and confuted.
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Jin SW, Mwimanzi FM, Mann JK, Bwana MB, Lee GQ, Brumme CJ, Hunt PW, Martin JN, Bangsberg DR, Ndung’u T, Brumme ZL, Brockman MA. Variation in HIV-1 Nef function within and among viral subtypes reveals genetically separable antagonism of SERINC3 and SERINC5. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008813. [PMID: 32925973 PMCID: PMC7515180 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV Nef counteracts cellular host restriction factors SERINC3 and SERINC5, but our understanding of how naturally occurring global Nef sequence diversity impacts these activities is limited. Here, we quantify SERINC3 and SERINC5 internalization function for 339 Nef clones, representing the major pandemic HIV-1 group M subtypes A, B, C and D. We describe distinct subtype-associated hierarchies for Nef-mediated internalization of SERINC5, for which subtype B clones display the highest activities on average, and of SERINC3, for which subtype B clones display the lowest activities on average. We further identify Nef polymorphisms that modulate its ability to counteract SERINC proteins, including substitutions in the N-terminal domain that selectively impair SERINC3 internalization. Our findings demonstrate that the SERINC antagonism activities of HIV Nef differ markedly among major viral subtypes and between individual isolates within a subtype, suggesting that variation in these functions may contribute to global differences in viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven W. Jin
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
| | | | - Jaclyn K. Mann
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, The Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Mwebesa Bosco Bwana
- Faculty of Medicine, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Guinevere Q. Lee
- British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Chanson J. Brumme
- British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, Vancouver, Canada
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Peter W. Hunt
- School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, United States of America
| | - Jeff N. Martin
- School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, United States of America
| | - David R. Bangsberg
- School of Public Health, Oregon Health Science University, Portland, United States of America
| | - Thumbi Ndung’u
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, The Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, South Africa
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT, and Harvard University, Cambridge, United States of America
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Zabrina L. Brumme
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
- British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Mark A. Brockman
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
- British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, Vancouver, Canada
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
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Lessi F, Grandi N, Mazzanti CM, Civita P, Scatena C, Aretini P, Bandiera P, Fornaciari A, Giuffra V, Fornaciari G, Naccarato AG, Tramontano E, Bevilacqua G. A human MMTV-like betaretrovirus linked to breast cancer has been present in humans at least since the copper age. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:15978-15994. [PMID: 32735554 PMCID: PMC7485742 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The betaretrovirus Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus (MMTV) is the well characterized etiological agent of mammary tumors in mice. In contrast, the etiology of sporadic human breast cancer (BC) is unknown, but accumulating data indicate a possible viral origin also for these malignancies. The presence of MMTVenv-like sequences (MMTVels) in the human salivary glands and saliva supports the latter as possible route of inter-human dissemination. In the absence of the demonstration of a mouse-man transmission of MMTV, we considered the possibility that a cross-species transmission could have occurred in ancient times. Therefore, we investigated MMTVels in the ancient dental calculus, which originates from saliva and is an excellent material for paleovirology. The calculus was collected from 36 ancient human skulls, excluding any possible mouse contamination. MMTV-like sequences were identified in the calculus of 6 individuals dated from the Copper Age to the 17th century. The MMTV-like sequences were compared with known human endogenous betaretroviruses and with animal exogenous betaretroviruses, confirming their exogenous origin and relation to MMTV. These data reveal that a human exogenous betaretrovirus similar to MMTV has existed at least since 4,500 years ago and indirectly support the hypothesis that it could play a role in human breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicole Grandi
- Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | | | - Prospero Civita
- Division of Pathology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Cristian Scatena
- Division of Pathology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Pasquale Bandiera
- Center for Anthropological, Paleopathological and Historical Studies of The Sardinian and Mediterranean Populations, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Antonio Fornaciari
- Division of Paleopathology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Valentina Giuffra
- Division of Paleopathology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Gino Fornaciari
- Division of Paleopathology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Antonio Giuseppe Naccarato
- Division of Pathology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Enzo Tramontano
- Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Generoso Bevilacqua
- Division of Pathology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, "San Rossore" Hospital, Pisa, Italy
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Özdemir S, Şengez B, Arslanoğlu A. Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 Tat protein induces secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor expression in African green monkey but not human cells. Virus Genes 2020; 56:182-193. [PMID: 31925640 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-020-01731-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
African monkeys are resistant to HIV-1 infection due to intrinsic restriction mechanisms found in their cells. However, although they can be infected by monkey-adapted modified HIV-1 particles that are designed to overcome known restriction factors, virus numbers drop to undetectable levels in immunocompetent animals. These results indicate the possibility of the presence of yet unidentified factor(s) that restrict HIV-1 in old-world monkey (OWM) cells after integration of the viral genome into the host cell chromosome. In the light of these findings, we hypothesized that OWMs might have evolved resistance mechanism(s) against HIV-1 by switching specific gene(s) on in response to the synthesis of viral proteins in infected cells. In an attempt to mimic post-infection status, we expressed HIV-1 Tat gene in African green monkey cells and compared the whole proteome with normal cells and identified secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), a protein with known extracellular anti-HIV-1 activity, as an over-expressed protein in the presence of HIV-1 Tat protein by 2D-PAGE and mass spectrometry analysis. We also showed that overexpression of SLPI in the presence of HIV-1 Tat was specific to monkey cells. Our results also suggest that SLPI had a previously undiscovered intracellular anti-HIV activity in addition to its extracellular activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selçuk Özdemir
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey.,Department of Genetics, Division of Zootechnics and Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Burcu Şengez
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey.,Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Centre, Dokuz Eylul University Health Campus, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Alper Arslanoğlu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey.
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Distinct rates and patterns of spread of the major HIV-1 subtypes in Central and East Africa. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007976. [PMID: 31809523 PMCID: PMC6897401 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the ignition of the HIV-1 group M pandemic in the beginning of the 20th century, group M lineages have spread heterogeneously throughout the world. Subtype C spread rapidly through sub-Saharan Africa and is currently the dominant HIV lineage worldwide. Yet the epidemiological and evolutionary circumstances that contributed to its epidemiological expansion remain poorly understood. Here, we analyse 346 novel pol sequences from the DRC to compare the evolutionary dynamics of the main HIV-1 lineages, subtypes A1, C and D. Our results place the origins of subtype C in the 1950s in Mbuji-Mayi, the mining city of southern DRC, while subtypes A1 and D emerged in the capital city of Kinshasa, and subtypes H and J in the less accessible port city of Matadi. Following a 15-year period of local transmission in southern DRC, we find that subtype C spread at least three-fold faster than other subtypes circulating in Central and East Africa. In conclusion, our results shed light on the origins of HIV-1 main lineages and suggest that socio-historical rather than evolutionary factors may have determined the epidemiological fate of subtype C in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Corona E, Wang L, Ko D, Patel CJ. Systematic detection of positive selection in the human-pathogen interactome and lasting effects on infectious disease susceptibility. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196676. [PMID: 29799843 PMCID: PMC5969750 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious disease has shaped the natural genetic diversity of humans throughout the world. A new approach to capture positive selection driven by pathogens would provide information regarding pathogen exposure in distinct human populations and the constantly evolving arms race between host and disease-causing agents. We created a human pathogen interaction database and used the integrated haplotype score (iHS) to detect recent positive selection in genes that interact with proteins from 26 different pathogens. We used the Human Genome Diversity Panel to identify specific populations harboring pathogen-interacting genes that have undergone positive selection. We found that human genes that interact with 9 pathogen species show evidence of recent positive selection. These pathogens are Yersenia pestis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 1, Zaire ebolavirus, Francisella tularensis, dengue virus, human respiratory syncytial virus, measles virus, Rubella virus, and Bacillus anthracis. For HIV-1, GWAS demonstrate that some naturally selected variants in the host-pathogen protein interaction networks continue to have functional consequences for susceptibility to these pathogens. We show that selected human genes were enriched for HIV susceptibility variants (identified through GWAS), providing further support for the hypothesis that ancient humans were exposed to lentivirus pandemics. Human genes in the Italian, Miao, and Biaka Pygmy populations that interact with Y. pestis show significant signs of selection. These results reveal some of the genetic footprints created by pathogens in the human genome that may have left lasting marks on susceptibility to infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Corona
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, RTI International, Durham, NC, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Liuyang Wang
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Dennis Ko
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Chirag J. Patel
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
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Halsey NA. Reflections of a Vaccinologist: Lessons Learned About What We Can Do to Improve Trust in Vaccines and Vaccine Programsa. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc 2017; 6:3-8. [PMID: 26611984 DOI: 10.1093/jpids/piv077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Public trust can be improved by learning from past mistakes, by establishing a standing forum for review of new concerns as they arise, and by maintaining a robust vaccine safety system. Developing standard guidelines for reporting causality assessment in case reports would help educate physicians and prevent future unnecessary concerns based on false assumptions of causal relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neal A Halsey
- Institute for Vaccine Safety, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Cella E, Lo Presti A, Giovanetti M, Veo C, Lai A, Dicuonzo G, Angeletti S, Ciotti M, Zehender G, Ciccozzi M. Phylogenetic Analysis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 Group B. J Glob Infect Dis 2016; 8:108-14. [PMID: 27621561 PMCID: PMC4997794 DOI: 10.4103/0974-777x.188592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) infections are mainly restricted to West Africa; however, in the recent years, the prevalence of HIV-2 is a growing concern in some European countries and the Southwestern region of India. Despite the presence of different HIV-2 groups, only A and B Groups have established human-to-human transmission chains. AIMS This work aimed to evaluate the phylogeographic inference of HIV-2 Group B worldwide to estimate their data of origin and the population dynamics. MATERIALS AND METHODS The evolutionary rates, the demographic history for HIV-2 Group B dataset, and the phylogeographic analysis were estimated using a Bayesian approach. The viral gene flow analysis was used to count viral gene out/in flow among different locations. RESULTS The root of the Bayesian maximum clade credibility tree of HIV-2 Group B dated back to 1957. The demographic history of HIV-2 Group B showed that the epidemic remained constant up to 1970 when started an exponential growth. From 1985 to early 2000s, the epidemic reached a plateau, and then it was characterized by two bottlenecks and a new plateau at the end of 2000s. Phylogeographic reconstruction showed that the most probable location for the root of the tree was Ghana. Regarding the viral gene flow of HIV-2 Group B, the only observed viral gene flow was from Africa to France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. CONCLUSIONS The study gives insights into the origin, history, and phylogeography of HIV-2 Group B epidemic. The growing number of infections of HIV-2 worldwide indicates the need for strengthening surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Cella
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immunomediated Diseases, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy; Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Lo Presti
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immunomediated Diseases, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Marta Giovanetti
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immunomediated Diseases, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy; Department of Biology, General Pathology Laboratory, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Carla Veo
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences L. Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessia Lai
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences L. Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Giordano Dicuonzo
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Laboratory, University Hospital Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Angeletti
- Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Laboratory, University Hospital Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Ciotti
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Tor Vergata Foundation Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Gianguglielmo Zehender
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences L. Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Ciccozzi
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immunomediated Diseases, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy; Clinical Pathology and Microbiology Laboratory, University Hospital Campus Bio-Medico, Rome, Italy
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Abstract
Etiology of human breast cancer is unknown, whereas the Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus (MMTV) is recognized as the etiologic agent of mouse mammary carcinoma. Moreover, this experimental model contributed substantially to our understanding of many biological aspects of the human disease. Several data strongly suggest a causative role of MMTV in humans, such as the presence of viral sequences in a high percentage of infiltrating breast carcinoma and in its preinvasive lesions, the production of viral particles in primary cultures of breast cancer, the ability of the virus to infect cells in culture. This paper demonstrates that MMTV is present in human saliva and salivary glands. MMTV presence was investigated by fluorescent PCR, RT-PCR, FISH, immunohistochemistry, and whole transcriptome analysis. Saliva was obtained from newborns, children, adults, and breast cancer patients. The saliva of newborns is MMTV-free, whereas MMTV is present in saliva of children (26.66%), healthy adults (10.60%), and breast cancer patients (57.14% as DNA and 33.9% as RNA). MMTV is also present in 8.10% of salivary glands. RNA-seq analysis performed on saliva of a breast cancer patient demonstrates a high expression of MMTV RNA in comparison to negative controls. The possibility of a contamination by murine DNA was excluded by murine mtDNA and IAP LTR PCR. These findings confirm the presence of MMTV in humans, strongly suggest saliva as route in inter-human infection, and support the hypothesis of a viral origin for human breast carcinoma.
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Kuhanen J. 'Deadly gonorrhoea': history, collective memory and early HIV epidemiology in East Central Africa. AJAR-AFRICAN JOURNAL OF AIDS RESEARCH 2016; 14:85-94. [PMID: 25920987 DOI: 10.2989/16085906.2015.1016989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This article combines local oral reminiscences with recent epidemiological literature to sketch a historical context around the onset and expansion of the HIV-1 epidemic in southern Uganda and north-western Tanzania. The local historical imagination has associated the appearance of AIDS in two ways. First, with specific socio-economic structures and circumstances common in the region since the 1960s and their enhancement during the 1970s due to economic changes at national and global levels. Second, the epidemic is associated with changes in the epidemiological situation. Local perspectives are supported by recent phylogenetic research and circumstantial historical evidence, on the basis of which a hypothesis on the expansion of HIV-1 in East Central Africa (southern Uganda, north-western Tanzania, Rwanda) is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Kuhanen
- a Department of Geographical and Historical Studies , University of Eastern Finland , Joensuu , Finland .
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