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Systemic Exposure to Air Pollution Induces Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Mouse Brain, Contributing to Neurodegeneration Onset. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21103699. [PMID: 32456361 PMCID: PMC7279458 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In northern Italy, biomass burning-derived (BB) particles and diesel exhaust particles (DEP) are considered the most significant contributors to ultrafine particle (UFP) emission. However, a comparison between their impact on different brain regions was not investigated until now. Therefore, male BALB/c mice were treated with a single or three consecutive intratracheal instillations using 50 µg of UFPs in 100 µL of isotonic saline solution or 100 µL of isotonic saline solution alone, and brains were collected and analyzed. Proteins related to oxidative stress and inflammation, as well as Alzheimer's disease markers, were examined in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and the rest of the brain (RoB). Histopathological examination of the brain was also performed. Moreover, correlations among different brain, pulmonary, and cardiovascular markers were performed, allowing us to identify the potentially most stressful UFP source. Although both acute exposures induced inflammatory pathways in mouse brain, only DEP showed strong oxidative stress. The sub-acute exposure also induced the modulation of APP and BACE1 protein levels for both UFPs. We observed that DEP exposure is more harmful than BB, and this different response could be explained by this UFP's different chemical composition and reactivity.
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In Vivo Comparative Study on Acute and Sub-acute Biological Effects Induced by Ultrafine Particles of Different Anthropogenic Sources in BALB/c Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20112805. [PMID: 31181746 PMCID: PMC6600162 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20112805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure to ultrafine particles (UFPs) leads to adverse effects on health caused by an unbalanced ratio between UFPs deposition and clearance efficacy. Since air pollution toxicity is first direct to cardiorespiratory system, we compared the acute and sub-acute effects of diesel exhaust particles (DEP) and biomass burning-derived particles (BB) on bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid (BALf), lung and heart parenchyma. Markers of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and inflammation were analysed in male BALB/c mice submitted to single and repeated intra-tracheal instillations of 50 μg UFPs. This in-vivo study showed the activation of inflammatory response (COX-2 and MPO) after exposure to UFPs, both in respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Exposure to DEP results also in pro- and anti-oxidant (HO-1, iNOS, Cyp1b1, Hsp70) protein levels increase, although, stress persist only in cardiac tissue under repeated instillations. Statistical correlations suggest that stress marker variation was probably due to soluble components and/or mediators translocation of from first deposition site. This mechanism, appears more important after repeated instillations, since inflammation and oxidative stress endure only in heart. In summary, chemical composition of UFPs influenced the activation of different responses mediated by their components or pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidative molecules, indicating DEP as the most damaging pollutant in the comparison.
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Plotnikova OA, Mel’nikov AG, Mel’nikov GV, Kovalenko AV. Luminescencence determination of ecotoxicants in protein-based media. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY B 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990793117040212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Banerjee S, Sarkar S, Lakshman K, Dutta J, Pal SK. UVA Radiation Induced Ultrafast Electron Transfer from a Food Carcinogen Benzo[a]pyrene to Organic Molecules, Biological Macromolecules, and Inorganic Nano Structures. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:3726-37. [DOI: 10.1021/jp312536x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Soma Banerjee
- UNANST, Department of Chemical,
Biological & Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block JD, Sector
III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700 098, India
| | - Soumik Sarkar
- UNANST, Department of Chemical,
Biological & Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block JD, Sector
III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700 098, India
| | - Karthik Lakshman
- Water Research Center, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 17, 123 Al-Khoudh,
Sultanate of Oman
| | - Joydeep Dutta
- Water Research Center, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 17, 123 Al-Khoudh,
Sultanate of Oman
| | - Samir Kumar Pal
- UNANST, Department of Chemical,
Biological & Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block JD, Sector
III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700 098, India
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Huang G, Guo H, Wu T. Genetic variations of CYP2B6 gene were associated with plasma BPDE-Alb adducts and DNA damage levels in coke oven workers. Toxicol Lett 2012; 211:232-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2012] [Revised: 03/31/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Analytical methods in DNA and protein adduct analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 398:2563-72. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4217-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2010] [Revised: 09/10/2010] [Accepted: 09/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Käfferlein HU, Marczynski B, Mensing T, Brüning T. Albumin and hemoglobin adducts of benzo[a]pyrene in humans—Analytical methods, exposure assessment, and recommendations for future directions. Crit Rev Toxicol 2010; 40:126-50. [DOI: 10.3109/10408440903283633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Chung MK, Riby J, Li H, Iavarone AT, Williams ER, Zheng Y, Rappaport SM. A sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for adducts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with human serum albumin. Anal Biochem 2010; 400:123-9. [PMID: 20083082 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2010.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2009] [Revised: 01/08/2010] [Accepted: 01/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Adducts of benzo[a]pyrene-diolepoxide (BPDE) with blood nucleophiles have been used as biomarkers of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The most popular such assay is a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) that employs monoclonal antibody 8E11 to detect benzo[a]pyrene tetrols following hydrolysis of BPDE adducts from lymphocyte DNA or human serum albumin (HSA). Here we used 8E11 as the capture antibody in a sandwich ELISA to detect BPDE-HSA adducts directly in 1-mg samples of HSA or 20 microl of serum/plasma. The assay employs an anti-HSA antibody for detection, and this is amplified by an avidin/biotinylated horseradish peroxidase complex. The sandwich ELISA has advantages of specificity and simplicity and is approximately 10 times more sensitive than the competitive ELISA. To validate the assay, HSA samples were assayed from three populations with known high PAH exposures (coke oven workers), medium PAH exposures (steel factory control workers), and low PAH exposures (volunteer subjects) (n=30). The respective geometric mean levels of BPDE-HSA adducts--67.8, 14.7, and 1.93 ng/mg HSA (1010, 220, and 28.9 fmol BPDE equiv/mg HSA)--were significantly different (P<0.05). The sandwich ELISA will be useful for screening PAH exposures in large epidemiologic studies and can be extended to other adducts for which capture antibodies are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Kei Chung
- School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Wang H, Chen W, Zheng H, Guo L, Liang H, Yang X, Bai Y, Sun J, Su Y, Chen Y, Yuan J, Bi Y, Wei Q, Wu T. Association between plasma BPDE-Alb adduct concentrations and DNA damage of peripheral blood lymphocytes among coke oven workers. Occup Environ Med 2007; 64:753-8. [PMID: 17449561 PMCID: PMC2078419 DOI: 10.1136/oem.2006.030445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Coke oven emissions (COE) containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can induce both benzo[a]pyrene-r-7, t-8, t-9,c-10-tetrahydotetrol-albumin (BPDE-Alb) adducts and DNA damage. However, the relation between these biomarkers for early biological effects is not well documented in coke oven workers. METHODS In this study, the authors recruited 207 male workers exposed to COE and 102 controls not exposed to COE in the same steel plant in northern China. They measured BPDE-Alb adduct concentrations in plasma with reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography and DNA damage in peripheral blood lymphocytes with alkaline comet assay. RESULTS The results showed that the median concentration of BPDE-Alb adducts in the exposed group (34.36 fmol/mg albumin) was significantly higher than that in the control group (21.90 fmol/mg albumin, p = 0.012). The mean Olive tail moment (Olive TM) of DNA damage in the exposed and control groups were 1.20 and 0.63, respectively (p = 0.000). Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that the odds ratio (OR) for BPDE-Alb adduct and Olive TM associated with the exposure were 1.72 (95% CI 1.06 to 2.81) and 1.96 (95% CI 1.20 to 3.19), respectively. These results show significant correlations between the concentrations of BPDE-Alb adduct and Olive TM levels in exposed group (r = 0.235, p = 0.001) but not in control group (r = 0.093, p = 0.353). CONCLUSION The results suggest that occupational exposure to COE may induce both BPDE-Alb adducts and DNA damage in the lymphocytes of coke oven workers and that these two markers are useful for monitoring exposure to COE in the workplace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wang
- Institute of Occupational Medicine and The Ministry of Education Key Lab for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Castaño-Vinyals G, D'Errico A, Malats N, Kogevinas M. Biomarkers of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from environmental air pollution. Occup Environ Med 2004; 61:e12. [PMID: 15031403 PMCID: PMC1740739 DOI: 10.1136/oem.2003.008375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Metabolites of pyrene and DNA adducts have been used as biomarkers of high level exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). A systematic review was performed to evaluate whether these biomarkers are also valid markers of low level environmental exposure to PAHs. Thirty five studies were identified with more than 10 subjects that evaluated environmental air pollution to PAHs in relation to metabolites of PAHs, mainly hydroxypyrene (1-OHP), PAH-DNA adducts, or protein adducts. PAH metabolites and, to a less extent, PAH-DNA adducts correlated well at the group level with exposure to B(a)P even at low levels of air pollution. The use of these biomarkers should be more widely implemented in combination with more traditional techniques for the assessment of general population exposure to PAHs from ambient air pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Castaño-Vinyals
- Respiratory and Environmental Research Unit, Municipal Institute of Medical Research, Barcelona, Spain
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Rössner P, Binková B, Srám RJ. The influence of occupational exposure to PAHs on the blood plasma levels of p53 and p21WAF1 proteins. Mutat Res 2003; 535:87-94. [PMID: 12547286 DOI: 10.1016/s1383-5718(02)00287-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the main source of carcinogenic risk among coke-oven workers. p53 is a tumor suppressor protein that is induced after DNA damage. It regulates the transcription of genes responsible for cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. p21(WAF1) protein is a downstream effector of p53; it induces cell cycle arrest either in the G(1), S, or G(2) phases. It has been shown that carcinogenic PAHs are able to induce the expression of both p53 and p21(WAF1) proteins in vitro. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of occupational exposure to carcinogenic PAHs on the level of p53 and p21(WAF1) proteins in blood plasma. The exposed group consisted of 66 coke-oven workers (males, average age 41 years, 42% smokers, 58% nonsmokers); the control group consisted of 49 machine workers (males, average age 49 years, 51% smokers, 49% nonsmokers). No difference in the plasma levels of either p53 (using anti-p53 antibody identifying both the mutated and the wild-type form of the protein) or p21(WAF1) protein was found between the exposed and control groups. Smoking had no effect on the levels of either protein in any of the analyzed groups. After stratification of all the subjects into groups according to their exposure to carcinogenic PAHs, a significantly higher level of p53 was found in the group exposed to carcinogenic PAHs <1 microg/m(3) as compared with the group exposed to carcinogenic PAHs >1 microg/m(3). A similar trend was observed for p21(WAF1) protein, even if no correlation between the levels of both proteins was detected. In the overall study a negative correlation between the levels of p53 protein and personal exposure to carcinogenic PAHs was found. These results did not support the expected response. The use of p53 as well as p21(WAF1) protein plasma levels as biomarkers of carcinogenic PAHs exposure requires further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Rössner
- Laboratory of Genetic Ecotoxicology, Institute of Experimental Medicine AS CR, Regional Institute of Hygiene of Central Bohemia, Vídenská 1083, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic.
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Glowala M, Mazurek A, Piddubnyak V, Fiszer-Kierzkowska A, Michalska J, Krawczyk Z. HSP70 overexpression increases resistance of V79 cells to cytotoxicity of airborne pollutants, but does not protect the mitotic spindle against damage caused by airborne toxins. Toxicology 2002; 170:211-9. [PMID: 11788158 DOI: 10.1016/s0300-483x(01)00556-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Exposure of Chinese hamster V79 cells to extracts of airborne pollutants induced formation of multipolar or incomplete mitotic spindles. To find out whether overexpression of the HSP70 chaperone protein could protect spindles against airborne toxins we constructed V79 cells stably transfected with an expression vector containing rat heat-inducible hsp70.1 gene under the control of a constitutive CMV promoter. When cells were incubated with extracts of airborne pollutants (5-20 microg/ml) no protective effect of the HSP70 protein against mitotic spindle damage was observed. Moreover, at 20 microg/ml of extracts of airborne toxins the frequency of mitotic malformations was even higher in HSP70-overexpressing cells than in control ones. Extracts of airborne pollutants of 50 microg/ml blocked the formation of mitotic figures both in control and HSP70-overexpressing cells and led to destruction of cell nuclei. However, the HSP70-overproducing cells exhibited higher survival rates when exposed to heat shock and airborne toxins than the control ones, as determined by MTT assay. This suggests that HSP70 overexpression-a frequent feature of cancer cells-should be considered as a factor facilitating survival of cells with damaged mitotic spindles and aberrantly segregated chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Glowala
- Department of Tumor Biology, Centre of Oncology - Maria Skłodowska-Curie Memorial Institute, Wybrzeze Armii Krajowej 15, 44-101, Gliwice, Poland
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Revel A, Raanani H, Younglai E, Xu J, Han R, Savouret JF, Casper RF. Resveratrol, a natural aryl hydrocarbon receptor antagonist, protects sperm from DNA damage and apoptosis caused by benzo(a)pyrene. Reprod Toxicol 2001; 15:479-86. [PMID: 11780955 DOI: 10.1016/s0890-6238(01)00149-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligand present in cigarette smoke and car exhaust, is thought to have negative effects on male reproduction. We hypothesized that BaP damages sperm through AhR activation, phase I enzyme induction, DNA adduct formation, and increased germ cell apoptosis in the testis, and that resveratrol, a natural competitive inhibitor of the AhR found in some red wines, could prevent the adverse effects of BaP on sperm. Male Balb C mice were injected subcutaneously (s.c.) for 5 weeks with a range of BaP doses (0.5 mg/kg to 50 mg/kg). Live sperm were obtained from the vas deferens, counted, and stained to measure annexin-V positive (apoptotic) cells. In a subsequent study, mice were injected for 5 weeks with corn oil (control), BaP (5 mg/kg/week), or BaP plus resveratrol (50 mg/kg/week) (n = 3 per group). Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed on testis sections for the determination of CYP1A1, BaP diol epoxide (BPDE) DNA adducts, and apoptosis and the results quantified by using the HSCORE, a semiquantitative scoring system. Our results demonstrated that sperm counts after 5 weeks were inversely correlated to BaP dosage. BaP (0.5 to 5 mg/week) positively correlated with sperm apoptosis while higher doses increased sperm necrosis. CYP1A1 protein was observed mainly in interstitial cells of some testis sections, but there was no significant induction by BaP. BPDE DNA adducts were induced in all components of the seminiferous tubules by BaP and suppressed by resveratrol: median HSCORE (interquartile range) control 61 (52-71.5); BaP 213 (192-248), P = 0.01 compared to control; BaP plus resveratrol 83 (70-90). BaP significantly increased apoptosis, mainly in spermatogonia: medain HSCORE (interquartile range) BaP 189 (161-223) versus control 83 (57-93), P < 0.01; and this effect was abrogated by resveratrol. Median HSCORE for BaP plus resveratrol was 112 (range 99-121). In summary, BaP caused increased sperm cell BPDE DNA adduct formation and apoptosis in the mouse. The natural AhR antagonist, resveratrol diminished BaP-induced DNA adducts and apoptosis in seminiferous tubules.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Revel
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Toronto, and Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Ontario, Canada
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Gladen BC, Zadorozhnaja TD, Chislovska N, Hryhorczuk DO, Kennicutt MC, Little RE. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in placenta. Hum Exp Toxicol 2000; 19:597-603. [PMID: 11211237 DOI: 10.1191/096032700671433928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Concentrations of chrysene, benz [a] anthracene, benzo [a]-pyrene, benzo [b] fluoranthene, indeno [1,2,3-c,d] pyrene, dibenz [a,h] anthracene, and benzo [g,h,i] perylene were measured in placentas from 200 women from two cities in Ukraine, Kyiv and Dniprodzerzhinsk. The participants had no special exposures and were chosen from among subjects in an ongoing study of reproductive health. All seven of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were found in all placentas, with the sole exception of benzo [a] pyrene in one placenta. Chrysene was present at the highest concentrations, with median 1.38 ng/g dry weight. Dibenz [a,h] anthracene and benzo [g,h,i] perylene had the lowest concentrations; each had median 0.73 ng/g dry weight. Concentrations in Kyiv were slightly higher than those in Dniprodzerzhinsk, but the difference was significant only for dibenz [a,h] anthracene. Dibenz [a,h] anthracene and benzo [g,h,i] perylene increased significantly with maternal body mass index, but other PAHs showed no such pattern. Placentas from deliveries in autumn or winter had slightly but not significantly higher concentrations. Concentrations were not related to maternal age. There were too few smokers in the sample for meaningful evaluation. No associations were seen between any of the placental PAH concentrations and birth weight of the infant.
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Affiliation(s)
- B C Gladen
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
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Srám RJ, Binková B. Molecular epidemiology studies on occupational and environmental exposure to mutagens and carcinogens, 1997-1999. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2000; 108 Suppl 1:57-70. [PMID: 10698723 PMCID: PMC1637778 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.108-1637778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Molecular epidemiology is a new and evolving area of research, combining laboratory measurement of internal dose, biologically effective dose, biologic effects, and influence of individual susceptibility with epidemiologic methodologies. Biomarkers evaluated were selected according to basic scheme: biomarkers of exposure--metabolites in urine, DNA adducts, protein adducts, and Comet assay parameters; biomarkers of effect--chromosomal aberrations, sister chromatid exchanges, micronuclei, mutations in the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gene, and the activation of oncogenes coding for p53 or p21 proteins as measured on protein levels; biomarkers of susceptibility--genetic polymorphisms of genes CYP1A1, GSTM1, GSTT1, NAT2. DNA adducts measured by 32P-postlabeling are the biomarker of choice for the evaluation of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Protein adducts are useful as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke (4-aminobiphenyl) or to smaller molecules such as acrylonitrile or 1,3-butadiene. Of the biomarkers of effect, the most common are cytogenetic end points. Epidemiologic studies support the use of chromosomal breakage as a relevant biomarker of cancer risk. The use of the Comet assay and methods analyzing oxidative DNA damage needs reliable validation for human biomonitoring. Until now there have not been sufficient data to interpret the relationship between genotypes, biomarkers of exposure, and biomarkers of effect for assessing the risk of human exposure to mutagens and carcinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Srám
- Laboratory of Genetic Ecotoxicology, Regional Institute of Hygiene of Central Bohemia and Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic.
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