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Zhang Y, Mi M, Zhu N, Yuan Z, Ding Y, Zhao Y, Lu Y, Weng S, Yuan Y. Global burden of tracheal, bronchus, and lung cancer attributable to occupational carcinogens in 204 countries and territories, from 1990 to 2019: results from the global burden of disease study 2019. Ann Med 2023; 55:2206672. [PMID: 37155297 PMCID: PMC10167889 DOI: 10.1080/07853890.2023.2206672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Occupational-related cancers are a substantial global health issue. The largest proportion of occupational-related cancers is tracheal, bronchus, and lung (TBL) cancer. This study aimed to explore the geographical and temporal trends in occupational carcinogens related to TBL cancer. METHODS Data on TBL cancer attributable to occupational carcinogens were collected from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Numbers and age-standardized rates (ASRs) of deaths, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and corresponding average annual percentage change (AAPC) were evaluated and stratified by geographic location, socio-demographic index (SDI) quintiles, age, and sex. RESULTS Globally, ASRs of deaths and DALYs in TBL cancer attributable to occupational carcinogens showed a downward trend (AAPC = - 0.69%, - 1.01%) while increases were observed in the low, low-middle, and middle SDI quintiles. Although males accounted for 82.4% and 81.5% of deaths and DALYs in 2019, respectively, it showed an upward trend of ASRs in females (AAPC = 0.33%, 0.02%). Occupational exposure to asbestos, silica and diesel engine exhaust were the top three causes of age-standardized TBL cancer deaths and DALYs. Over the past three decades, the percentage of age-standardized TBL cancer deaths and DALYs attributable to occupational asbestos and silica exposure decreased by 18.24, 6.71 and 20.52%, 4.00% globally, but increased significantly in lower SDI regions, while the burden attributable to occupational diesel engine exhaust exposure increased by 32.76, 37.23% worldwide. CONCLUSIONS Occupational exposure remains an important risk factor for TBL cancer. The burden of TBL cancer attributable to occupational carcinogens showed obvious heterogeneity which decreased in higher SDI but increased in lower SDI regions. The burden of males was significantly higher than females, but the females showed an increasing trend. Occupational exposure to asbestos was the main causes of the burden. Therefore, effective prevention and control measures tailored to local conditions are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Mi Mi
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ning Zhu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhijun Yuan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuwei Ding
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yingxin Zhao
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yier Lu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Shanshan Weng
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ying Yuan
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Cancer Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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Collatuzzo G, Turati F, Malvezzi M, Negri E, La Vecchia C, Boffetta P. Attributable Fraction of Cancer Related to Occupational Exposure in Italy. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15082234. [PMID: 37190163 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15082234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to occupational carcinogens is an important and avoidable cause of cancer. We aimed to provide an evidence-based estimate of the burden of occupation-related cancers in Italy. METHODS The attributable fraction (AF) was calculated based on the counterfactual scenario of no occupational exposure to carcinogens. We included exposures classified as IARC group 1 and with reliable evidence of exposure in Italy. Relative risk estimates for selected cancers and prevalences of exposure were derived from large-scale studies. Except for mesothelioma, a 15-20-year latency period between exposure and cancer was considered. The data on cancer incidence in 2020 and mortality in 2017 in Italy were obtained from the Italian Association of Cancer Registries. RESULTS The most prevalent exposures were UV radiation (5.8%), diesel exhaust (4.3%), wood dust (2.3%) and silica dust (2.1%). Mesothelioma had the largest AF to occupational carcinogens (86.6%), followed by sinonasal cancer (11.8%) and lung cancer (3.8%). We estimated that 0.9% of cancer cases (N~3500) and 1.6% of cancer deaths (N~2800) were attributable to occupational carcinogens in Italy. Of these, about 60% were attributable to asbestos, 17.5% to diesel exhaust, followed by chromium and silica dust (7% and 5%). CONCLUSIONS Our estimates provide up-to-date quantification of the low, but persistent, burden of occupational cancers in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Collatuzzo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Federica Turati
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health (DISCCO), University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Malvezzi
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health (DISCCO), University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy
| | - Eva Negri
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Carlo La Vecchia
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health (DISCCO), University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Boffetta
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
- Stony Brook Cancer Center, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
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Li H, Guo J, Liang H, Zhang T, Zhang J, Wei L, Shi D, Zhang J, Wang Z. The Burden of Trachea, Bronchus, and Lung Cancer Attributable to Occupational Exposure From 1990 to 2019. Front Public Health 2022; 10:928937. [PMID: 35784215 PMCID: PMC9247327 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.928937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Occupational exposure to carcinogens is associated with trachea, bronchus, and lung (TBL) cancer. The objective of this study was to provide global and regional estimates of the burden of TBL cancer associated with occupational carcinogens (OCs) between 1990 and 2019. Methods Age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR) and age-standardized disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) rates (ASDR) of TBL cancer related to exposure to OCs at the global and regional levels were extracted for 1990–2019 from the Global Burden of Disease 2019. Joinpoint regression was used to analyze trends in the ASMR and ASDR of TBL cancer burden related to OCs, and the annual percent change and the average annual percent change (AAPC) were recorded. Results The mortality from TBL cancer related to exposure to OCs increased globally. The ASMR and ASDR decreased in both sexes and in men between 1990 and 2019. The AAPC of ASMR and ASDR decreased in men between 1990 and 2019, but increased in women. Asbestos accounted for the highest death number and beryllium accounted for the lowest; diesel engine exhaust caused the largest percentage change in death number (145.3%), in ASDR (14.9%), and in all ages DALY rates (57.6%). Asbestos accounted for the largest death number in high social development index (SDI) countries, whereas low-middle SDI countries had the largest percent change (321.4%). Asbestos was associated with decreased ASDR in high SDI countries and increased ASDR in low-middle SDI countries, and similar changes were observed for other OCs. Conclusions The overall mortality and DALYs of TBL cancer burden related to OCs showed a decreasing trend between 1990 and 2019, whereas death number increased. Asbestos accounted for the highest death number. TBL cancer burden related to OCs decreased to different degrees in high, low, low-middle, and middle SDI countries, which showed variable levels of TBL cancer burden related to exposure to OCs (except asbestos).
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jingwen Guo
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hongsen Liang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jinyu Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Li Wei
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Donglei Shi
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Junhang Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- *Correspondence: Junhang Zhang
| | - Zhaojun Wang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Zhaojun Wang
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Mofidi A, Tompa E, Kalcevich C, McLeod C, Lebeau M, Song C, Kim J, Demers PA. Occupational Exposure to Wood Dust and the Burden of Nasopharynx and Sinonasal Cancer in Canada. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19031144. [PMID: 35162168 PMCID: PMC8834578 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19031144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Millions of workers around the world are exposed to wood dust, as a by-product of woodworking. Nasopharynx cancers (NPCs) and sinonasal cancers (SNCs) are two cancers that can be caused by occupational exposure to wood dust, but there is little evidence regarding their burden in Canada. OBJECTIVE the aim of this study was to estimate the incidence and economic burden of newly diagnosed cases of NPC and SNC in 2011 in Canada, attributable to occupational exposures to wood dust. METHODS calculating the incidence of cancer attributable to occupational exposure involved three steps of defining relative risk, assessing the prevalence of exposure and population modelling. We estimated the lifetime costs of newly diagnosed NPC and SNC from the societal perspective. The three major cost categories that we considered were direct costs (healthcare costs, out-of-pocket costs, and informal caregiving costs), indirect costs (labour productivity/output costs, employer adjustment costs, and home production losses), and intangible costs (health-related quality of life losses). To generate an estimate of economic burden, we used secondary data from multiple sources and applied them to our computational model developed from an extensive literature review. RESULTS From approximately 1.3 million workers exposed to wood dust, we expected 28%, 43% and 29% were exposed to low, medium, and high levels, respectively. We estimated from 235 newly diagnosed cases of NPC and 245 newly diagnosed cases of SNC, 4.6% (11 cases) and 4.4% (11 cases) were attributed to occupational exposure to wood dust, respectively. Our estimates of the economic burden of occupational NPC and SNC were about CAD 5.4 million (CAD 496,311 per-case) and CAD 6.7 million (CAD 627,437 per-case), respectively. For NPC direct costs constituted approximately 20% of all costs, and indirect and intangible costs accounted for 55% and 25%, while for SNC the breakdown distribution were 16%, 42% and 42%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Our estimates highlighted the importance of occupational NPC and SNC amongst other occupational cancers, especially in countries with large wood-related industries. This paper also serves the information needs of policymakers who are seeking to make evidence-based decisions about occupational cancer prevention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirabbas Mofidi
- Institute for Work & Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1S5, Canada; (E.T.); (C.K.); (C.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-416-927-2027 (ext. 2176)
| | - Emile Tompa
- Institute for Work & Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1S5, Canada; (E.T.); (C.K.); (C.M.)
- Department of Economics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 3M7, Canada
| | - Christina Kalcevich
- Institute for Work & Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1S5, Canada; (E.T.); (C.K.); (C.M.)
| | - Christopher McLeod
- Institute for Work & Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1S5, Canada; (E.T.); (C.K.); (C.M.)
- School of Population and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Martin Lebeau
- Institut de Recherche Robert-Sauvé en Santé et en Sécurité du Travail (IRSST), Montreal, QC H3A 3C2, Canada;
| | - Chaojie Song
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC), Toronto, ON M5G 1X3, Canada; (C.S.); (J.K.); (P.A.D.)
| | - Joanne Kim
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC), Toronto, ON M5G 1X3, Canada; (C.S.); (J.K.); (P.A.D.)
| | - Paul A. Demers
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC), Toronto, ON M5G 1X3, Canada; (C.S.); (J.K.); (P.A.D.)
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Jost E, Dingley B, Jost C, Cheung WY, Quan ML, Bouchard-Fortier A, Kong S, Xu Y. Associations Between the Density of Oil and Gas Infrastructure and the Incidence, Stage and Outcomes of Solid Tumours: A Population-Based Geographic Analysis. Front Oncol 2021; 11:757875. [PMID: 34722312 PMCID: PMC8555261 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.757875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background We hypothesized that there are geographic areas of increased cancer incidence in Alberta, and that these are associated with high densities of oil and gas(O+G) infrastructure. Our objective was to describe the relationship between O+G infrastructure and incidence of solid tumours on a population level. Methods We analyzed all patients >=18 years old with urological, breast, upper GI, colorectal, head and neck, hepatobiliary, lung, melanoma, and prostate cancers identified from the Alberta Cancer Registry from 2004-2016. Locations of active and orphan O+G sites were obtained from the Alberta Energy Regulator and Orphan Well Association. Orphan sites have no entity responsible for their maintenance. ArcGIS (ESRI, Toronto, Ontario) was used to calculate the distribution of O+G sites in each census distribution area (DA). Patient residence at diagnosis was defined by postal code. Incidence of cancer per DA was calculated and standardized. Negative binomial regression was done on O+G site density as a categorical variable with cutoffs of 1 and 30 wells/100km2, compared to areas with 0 sites. Results 125,316 patients were identified in the study timeframe;58,243 (46.5%) were female, mean age 65.6 years. Breast (22%) and prostate (19.8%) cancers were most common. Mortality was 36.5% after a median of 30 months follow up (IQR 8.4 - 68.4). For categorical density of active O+G sites, RR was 1.02 for 1-30 sites/100km2 (95% CI=0.95-1.11) and 1.15 for >30 sites/100km2 (p<0.0001, 95%CI=1.11-1.2). For orphan sites, 1-30 sites RR was 1.25 (p<0.0001, 95%CI=1.16-1.36) and 1.01 (p=0.97, 95%CI=0.7-1.45) for >30 sites. For all O+G sites, RR for 1-30 sites was 1.03 (p=0.4328, 95%CI=0.95-1.11) and 1.15 (p<0.0001, 95%CI=1.11-1.2) for >30 sites. Conclusion We report a statistically significant correlation between O+G infrastructure density and solid tumour incidence in Alberta. To our knowledge this is the first population-level study to observe that active and orphan O+G sites are associated with increased risk of solid tumours. This finding may inform policy on remediation and cancer prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan Jost
- Department of Surgery, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Brittany Dingley
- Departments of Surgery and Oncology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Casey Jost
- University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Winson Y Cheung
- Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - May Lynn Quan
- Department of Surgery, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Antoine Bouchard-Fortier
- Department of Surgery, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Shiying Kong
- Department of Community Health Sciences, Cumming School of Medicine, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Yuan Xu
- Department of Surgery, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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Liu H, Dong Z. Cancer Etiology and Prevention Principle: "1 + X". Cancer Res 2021; 81:5377-5395. [PMID: 34470778 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-21-1862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cancer was previously thought to be an inevitable aspect of human health with no effective treatments. However, the results of in-depth cancer research suggest that most types of cancer may be preventable. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the disparities in cancer burden caused by different risk factors is essential to inform and improve cancer prevention and control. Here, we propose the cancer etiology and prevention principle "1 + X," where 1 denotes the primary risk factor for a cancer and X represents the secondary contributing risk factors for the cancer. We elaborate upon the "1 + X" principle with respect to risk factors for several different cancer types. The "1 + X" principle can be used for precise prevention of cancer by eliminating the main cause of a cancer and minimizing the contributing factors at the same time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Liu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,China-US (Henan) Hormel Cancer Institute, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Zigang Dong
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China. .,China-US (Henan) Hormel Cancer Institute, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
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da Silveira Fleck A, Catto C, L'Espérance G, Masse JP, Roberge B, Debia M. Characterization and Quantification of Ultrafine Particles and Carbonaceous Components from Occupational Exposures to Diesel Particulate Matter in Selected Workplaces. Ann Work Expo Health 2020; 64:490-502. [PMID: 32266382 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxaa027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Questions still exist regarding which indicator better estimates worker's exposure to diesel particulate matter (DPM) and, especially for ultrafine particles (UFP), how exposure levels and the characteristics of the particles vary in workplaces with different exposure conditions. This study aimed to quantify and characterize DPM exposures in three workplaces with different exposure levels: an underground mine, a subway tunnel, and a truck repair workshop. The same sampling strategy was used and included measurements of the particle number concentration (PNC), mass concentration, size distribution, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and the characterization of carbonaceous fractions. The highest geometric means (GMs) of PNC and elemental carbon (EC) were measured in the mine [134 000 (geometric standard deviation, GSD = 1.5) particles cm-3 and 125 (GSD = 2.1) µg m-3], followed by the tunnel [32 800 (GSD = 1.7) particles cm-3 and 24.7 (GSD = 2.4) µg m-3], and the truck workshop [22 700 (GSD = 1.3) particles cm-3 and 2.7 (GSD = 2.4) µg m-3]. This gradient of exposure was also observed for total carbon (TC) and particulate matter. The TC/EC ratio was 1.4 in the mine, 2.5 in the tunnel and 8.7 in the workshop, indicating important organic carbon interference in the non-mining workplaces. EC and PNC were strongly correlated in the tunnel (r = 0.85; P < 0.01) and the workshop (r = 0.91; P < 0.001), but a moderate correlation was observed in the mine (r = 0.57; P < 0.05). Results from TEM showed individual carbon spheres between 10 and 56.5 nm organized in agglomerates, while results from the size distribution profiles showed bimodal distributions with a larger accumulation mode in the mine (93 nm) compared with the tunnel (39 nm) and the truck workshop (34 nm). In conclusion, the composition of the carbonaceous fraction varies according to the workplace, and can interfere with DPM estimation when TC is used as indicator. Also, the dominance of particles <100 nm in all workplaces, the high levels of PNC measured and the good correlation with EC suggest that UFP exposures should receive more attention on occupational routine measurements and regulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan da Silveira Fleck
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Centre de recherche en santé publique, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Cyril Catto
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Gilles L'Espérance
- Department of Mathematical and Industrial Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Jean-Philippe Masse
- Department of Mathematical and Industrial Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Brigitte Roberge
- Institut de Recherche Robert-Sauvé en Santé et en Sécurité du Travail (IRSST), Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Maximilien Debia
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Centre de recherche en santé publique, Montreal, QC, Canada
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León-Mejía G, Quintana-Sosa M, de Moya Hernandez Y, Rodríguez IL, Trindade C, Romero MA, Luna-Carrascal J, Ortíz LO, Acosta-Hoyos A, Ruiz-Benitez M, Valencia KF, Rohr P, da Silva J, Henriques JAP. DNA repair and metabolic gene polymorphisms affect genetic damage due to diesel engine exhaust exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:20516-20526. [PMID: 32246425 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-08533-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Diesel engine exhaust (DEE) is a complex mixture of toxic gases, halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons, alkyl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene derivatives, metals and diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) generated from the incomplete combustion of diesel fuel. Many of the compounds in this mixture can cause oxidative damage to DNA and are considered carcinogenic for humans. Further, chronic DEE exposure increases risks of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. Despite these pervasive health risks, there is limited and inconsistent information regarding genetic factors conferring susceptibility or resistance to DEE genotoxicity. The present study evaluated the effects of polymorphisms in two base excision repair (BER) genes (OGG1 Ser326Cys and XRCC1 Arg280His), one homologous recombination (HRR) gene (XRCC3 Thr241Met) and two xenobiotic metabolism genes (GSTM1 and GSTT1) on the genotoxicity profiles among 123 mechanics exposed to workplace DEE. Polymorphisms were determined by PCR-RFLP. In comet assay, individuals with the GSTT1 null genotype demonstrated significantly greater % tail DNA in lymphocytes than those with non-null genotype. In contrast, these null individuals exhibited significantly lower frequencies of binucleated (BN) cells and nuclear buds (NBUDs) in buccal cells than non-null individuals. Heterozygous hOGG1 326 individuals (hOGG1 326 Ser/Cys) exhibited higher buccal cell NBUD frequency than hOGG1 326 Ser/Ser individuals. Individuals carrying the XRCC3 241 Met/Met polymorphism also showed significantly higher buccal cell NBUD frequencies than those carrying the XRCC3 241 Thr/Thr polymorphism. We found a high flow of particulate matter with a diameter of < 2.5 μm (PM2.5) in the workplace. The most abundant metals in DEPs were iron, copper, silicon and manganese as detected by transmission electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (TEM-EDX). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) revealed particles with diameters smaller than PM2.5, including nanoparticles forming aggregates and agglomerates. Our results demonstrate the genotoxic effects of DEE and the critical influence of genetic susceptibility conferred by DNA repair and metabolic gene polymorphisms that shed light into the understanding of underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grethel León-Mejía
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia.
| | - Milton Quintana-Sosa
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | | | - Ibeth Luna Rodríguez
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Cristiano Trindade
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Marco Anaya Romero
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Jaime Luna-Carrascal
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Ludis Oliveros Ortíz
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Antonio Acosta-Hoyos
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Martha Ruiz-Benitez
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Karen Franco Valencia
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas y Biomédicas, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Paula Rohr
- Laboratório de Genética, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Campus Carreiros, Av. Itália km 8, Rio Grande, RS, 96201-900, Brazil
- Laboratório de Genética Toxicológica, Universidade Luterana do Brasil (ULBRA), Canoas, RS, Brazil
| | - Juliana da Silva
- Laboratório de Genética Toxicológica, Universidade Luterana do Brasil (ULBRA), Canoas, RS, Brazil
| | - João Antônio Pêgas Henriques
- Departamento de Biofísica, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Idavain J, Lang K, Tomasova J, Lang A, Orru H. Cancer Incidence Trends in the Oil Shale Industrial Region in Estonia. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E3833. [PMID: 32481656 PMCID: PMC7312168 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17113833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Large oil shale resources are found in Eastern Estonia, where the mineral resource is mined, excavated, and used for electricity generation and shale oil extraction. During industrial activities in the last 100 years, pollutants have been emitted in large amounts, some of which are toxic and carcinogenic. The current study aims to analyse time trends in cancer incidence in the oil shale industry-affected areas and compare them with overall cancer incidence rates and trends in Estonia. We analysed Estonian Cancer Registry data on selected cancer sites that have been previously indicated to have relationships with industrial activities like oil shale extraction. We included lung cancer, kidney cancer, urinary bladder cancer, leukaemia, breast cancer, and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. A statistically significantly higher lung cancer age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR) was found during the study period (1992-2015) only in males in the oil shale areas as compared to males in Estonia overall: 133.6 and 95.5 per 100,000, respectively. However, there appeared to be a statistically significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the lung cancer ASIR in males in the oil shale areas (overall decrease 28.9%), whereas at the same time, there was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in non-oil shale areas (13.3%) and in Estonia overall (1.5%). Other cancer sites did not show higher ASIRs in the oil shale industrial areas compared to other areas in Estonia. Possible explanations could be improved environmental quality, socio-economic factors, and other morbidities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Idavain
- Institute of Family Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila 19, 50411 Tartu, Estonia; (K.L.); (H.O.)
- Department of Health Statistics, National Institute for Health Development, Hiiu 42, 11619 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Katrin Lang
- Institute of Family Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila 19, 50411 Tartu, Estonia; (K.L.); (H.O.)
| | - Jelena Tomasova
- Estonian Health Board, Paldiski mnt 81, 10617 Tallinn, Estonia;
| | - Aavo Lang
- Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila 19, 50411 Tartu, Estonia;
| | - Hans Orru
- Institute of Family Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila 19, 50411 Tartu, Estonia; (K.L.); (H.O.)
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umea University, SE-901 87 Umea, Sweden
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Ge CB, Kim J, Labrèche F, Heer E, Song C, Arrandale VH, Pahwa M, Peters CE, Demers PA. Estimating the burden of lung cancer in Canada attributed to occupational radon exposure using a novel exposure assessment method. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2020; 93:871-876. [PMID: 32232555 PMCID: PMC7452915 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-020-01537-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Objective Exposure to radon causes lung cancer. The scope and impact of exposure among Canadian workers have not been assessed. Our study estimated occupational radon exposure in Canada and its associated lung cancer burden. Methods Exposed workers were identified among the working population during the risk exposure period (1961–2001) using data from the Canadian Census and Labour Force Survey. Exposure levels were assigned based on 12,865 workplace radon measurements for indoor workers and assumed to be 1800 mg/m3 for underground workers. Lung cancer risks were calculated using the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) VI exposure-age-concentration model. Population attributable fractions were calculated with Levin’s equation and applied to 2011 Canadian lung cancer statistics. Results Approximately 15.5 million Canadian workers were exposed to radon during the risk exposure period. 79% of exposed workers were exposed to radon levels < 50 Bq/m3 and 4.8% were exposed to levels > 150 Bq/m3. We estimated that 0.8% of lung cancers in Canada were attributable to occupational radon exposure, corresponding to approximately 188 incident lung cancers in 2011. Conclusions The lung cancer burden associated with occupational radon exposure in Canada is small, with the greatest burden occurring among those exposed to low levels of radon.
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Affiliation(s)
- C B Ge
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM, Utrecht, Netherlands. .,CAREX Canada, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada.
| | - J Kim
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
| | - F Labrèche
- Institut de Recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé Et en sécurité du Travail, Montréal, Canada.,Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
| | - E Heer
- Department of Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Research, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada
| | - C Song
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Canada
| | - V H Arrandale
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Canada.,Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - M Pahwa
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Canada
| | - C E Peters
- CAREX Canada, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada.,Department of Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Research, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada.,Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - P A Demers
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Canada.,Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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Pahwa M, Labrèche F, Kim J, Harris MA, Song C, Peters CE, Arrandale VH, Davies H, McLeod CB, Demers PA. The impact of night shift work on breast cancer: Results from the Burden of Occupational Cancer in Canada Study. Am J Ind Med 2019; 62:635-642. [PMID: 31172551 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We estimated the proportion and number of female breast cancer cases in Canada attributable to night shift work, a probable cause of breast cancer. METHODS Levin's equation was used to calculate population attributable fractions (PAFs) among Canadian women who ever worked night/rotating shifts from 1961 to 2000, accounting for labor turnover and survival to the year 2011. The calculated PAFs were applied to 2011 Canadian breast cancer incidence statistics to obtain the number of attributable cases. RESULTS Approximately 1.5 million women ever worked night/rotating shifts during 1961-2000 and survived to 2011. The PAFs ranged from 2.0% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.4-6.2) to 5.2% (95% CI: 3.7-13.6), and 470 to 1200 incident breast cancer cases in 2011 were likely due to shift work, of which 38% would have been diagnosed among women in health-related occupations. CONCLUSIONS More research is needed to increase the certainty of this association, but current evidence supports workplace-based prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manisha Pahwa
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Prevention and Cancer ControlCancer Care OntarioToronto Ontario Canada
| | - France Labrèche
- Institut de recherche Robert‐Sauvé en santé et en sécurité du travailMontréal Quebec Canada
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public HealthUniversité de MontréalMontréal Quebec Canada
| | - Joanne Kim
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Prevention and Cancer ControlCancer Care OntarioToronto Ontario Canada
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational HealthMcGill UniversityMontréal Quebec Canada
| | - M. Anne Harris
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Prevention and Cancer ControlCancer Care OntarioToronto Ontario Canada
- School of Occupational and Public Health, Faculty of Community ServicesRyerson UniversityToronto Ontario Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, Division of Occupational and Environmental HealthUniversity of TorontoToronto Ontario Canada
| | - Chaojie Song
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Prevention and Cancer ControlCancer Care OntarioToronto Ontario Canada
| | - Cheryl E. Peters
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Prevention and Cancer ControlCancer Care OntarioToronto Ontario Canada
- CAREX CanadaSimon Fraser UniversityBurnaby British Columbia Canada
- Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Research, Alberta Health ServicesCancerControl AlbertaCalgary Alberta Canada
- Department of Oncology, Cumming School of MedicineUniversity of CalgaryCalgary Alberta Canada
| | - Victoria H. Arrandale
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Prevention and Cancer ControlCancer Care OntarioToronto Ontario Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, Division of Occupational and Environmental HealthUniversity of TorontoToronto Ontario Canada
| | - Hugh Davies
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Prevention and Cancer ControlCancer Care OntarioToronto Ontario Canada
- CAREX CanadaSimon Fraser UniversityBurnaby British Columbia Canada
- School of Population and Public Health, Division of Occupational and Environmental HealthUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver British Columbia Canada
| | - Christopher B. McLeod
- School of Population and Public Health, Division of Occupational and Environmental HealthUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver British Columbia Canada
- Institute for Work & HealthToronto Ontario Canada
| | - Paul A. Demers
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Prevention and Cancer ControlCancer Care OntarioToronto Ontario Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, Division of Occupational and Environmental HealthUniversity of TorontoToronto Ontario Canada
- CAREX CanadaSimon Fraser UniversityBurnaby British Columbia Canada
- School of Population and Public Health, Division of Occupational and Environmental HealthUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver British Columbia Canada
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12
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Burden of non-melanoma skin cancer attributable to occupational sun exposure in Canada. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2019; 92:1151-1157. [DOI: 10.1007/s00420-019-01454-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Labrèche F, Kim J, Song C, Pahwa M, Ge CB, Arrandale VH, McLeod CB, Peters CE, Lavoué J, Davies HW, Nicol AM, Demers PA. The current burden of cancer attributable to occupational exposures in Canada. Prev Med 2019; 122:128-139. [PMID: 31078166 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to occupational carcinogens is often overlooked as a contributor to the burden of cancer. To estimate the proportion of cancer cases attributable to occupational exposure in Canada in 2011, exposure prevalence and levels of 44 carcinogens were informed by data from the Canadian carcinogen exposure surveillance project (CAREX Canada). These were used with Canadian Census (between 1961 and 2011) and Labour Force Survey (annual surveys between 1976 and 2013) data to estimate the number of workers ever exposed to occupational carcinogens. Risk estimates of the association between each carcinogen and cancer site were selected mainly from published literature reviews. Population attributable risks were estimated using Levin's equation and applied to the 2011 cancer statistics from the Canadian Cancer Registry. It is estimated that 15.5 million Canadians alive in 2011 were exposed, during at least one year between 1961 and 2001, to at least one carcinogen in the workplace. Overall, we estimated that in 2011, between 3.9% (95% CI: 3.1%-8.1%) and 4.2% (95% CI: 3.3%-8.7%) of all incident cases of cancer were due to occupational exposure, corresponding to lower and upper numbers of 7700-21,800 cases. Five of the cancer sites - mesothelioma, non-melanoma skin cancer, lung, female breast, and urinary bladder - account for a total of 7600 to 21,200 cancers attributable to occupational exposures such as solar radiation, asbestos, diesel engine exhaust, crystalline silica, and night shift work. Our study highlights cancer sites and occupational exposures that need recognition and efforts by all stakeholders to avoid preventable cancers in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- France Labrèche
- Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en sécurité du travail, Montréal, Québec, Canada; School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Joanne Kim
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC), Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Chaojie Song
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC), Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Manisha Pahwa
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC), Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Calvin B Ge
- CAREX Canada, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Universiteit Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Victoria H Arrandale
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC), Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christopher B McLeod
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; Institute for Work & Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cheryl E Peters
- CAREX Canada, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada; Department of Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Research, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Departments of Oncology and Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jérôme Lavoué
- School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada; Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Hugh W Davies
- CAREX Canada, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada; School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Anne-Marie Nicol
- CAREX Canada, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada; Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Paul A Demers
- Occupational Cancer Research Centre (OCRC), Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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Fleck A, Cabelguen V, Couture C, Lachapelle G, Ryan P, Thuot R, Debia M. Comparison between personal sampling methodologies for evaluating diesel particulate matter exposures in mines: submicron total carbon corrected for the adsorption of vapor-phase organic carbon vs. respirable total carbon. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2019; 16:1-5. [PMID: 30285551 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2018.1532576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In the mining industry, personal measurements of elemental and total carbon are frequently used as surrogates of diesel particulate matter (DPM) exposure, and the respirable or submicron fractions are usually measured. However, vapor-phase organic carbon (OC) can be adsorbed in the filters, interfering with total carbon results. This study presents a comparative evaluation between the submicron fraction of DPM concentrations corrected for the adsorption of the vapor-phase OC (dynamic blank), and the respirable fraction of DPM corrected for a field blank. Respirable and submicron fractions of total carbon (TCR and TC1) and elemental carbon (ECR and EC1) concentrations were sampled in parallel, in the workers' breathing zone, in an underground gold mine. A total of 20 full-shift personal samples were taken for each size fraction. Field blanks were collected each day for both the submicron and respirable fractions, while dynamic blank correction was also applied for the submicron fraction. TCR presented a larger and statistically different geometric mean concentration compared to TC1 (98 µg/m3 vs. 72 µg/m3; p = 0.01), while the concentrations of ECR and EC1 were not statistically different (58 µg/m3 vs. 54 µg/m3; p = 0.74). Average TCR/ECR ratio was 1.7, while the TC1/EC1 ratio was 1.3. In addition, 93% of EC had an aerodynamic size lower than 1 µm, while the proportion of TC particles in the submicron fraction was lower (73%). Finally, a similar quantity of OC was found when analyzing the dynamic and field blanks of the filters with the submicron fraction selective size (24 µg and 22 µg, respectively). In conclusion, the correction for the vapor phase OC by the dynamic blank was not a significant correction in our study design compared to the field blank samples. This study suggests that the differences in TC may be explained by the different aerodynamic fractions of DPM collected. In addition, elemental carbon measurements did not seem to be extensively affected by the aerodynamic size of the particles collected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Fleck
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Université de Montréal , Montreal , Canada
| | - Virginie Cabelguen
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Université de Montréal , Montreal , Canada
| | - Caroline Couture
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Université de Montréal , Montreal , Canada
| | | | - Patrick Ryan
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Université de Montréal , Montreal , Canada
| | - Ross Thuot
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Université de Montréal , Montreal , Canada
| | - Maximilien Debia
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Université de Montréal , Montreal , Canada
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