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Divino JA, Ehrl P, Candido O, Valadao MAP. Assessing the Effects of a Tobacco Tax Reform on the Industry Price-Setting Strategy. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:10376. [PMID: 34639676 PMCID: PMC8507962 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph181910376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In July 2020, the Executive Power submitted Bill no. 3887-2020 as the first step towards a wide reform of the Brazilian tax system. It will replace the current PIS/COFINS (charged on turnover of companies) by the CBS (a tax on goods and services), which includes a special regime for cigarettes. The novelty is that the specific cigarette tax will be charged on the highest retail price per cigarette brand across the country. This research simulates three scenarios that differ according to the price-setting strategy of the tobacco industry in reaction to the proposed tax reform. In all simulations, the tax reform would result in considerably higher cigarette prices, lower cigarette consumption, higher tax collection, and an implicit minimum price that is far above the current official price floor. Furthermore, the price dispersion and cross-border shopping across states would be reduced because prices and tax burden per brand would tend to be the same across the country due to the dominant price-setting strategy in the cigarette industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Angelo Divino
- Graduate Program of Economics, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília 71966-700, Brazil; (P.E.); (O.C.)
| | - Philipp Ehrl
- Graduate Program of Economics, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília 71966-700, Brazil; (P.E.); (O.C.)
| | - Osvaldo Candido
- Graduate Program of Economics, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília 71966-700, Brazil; (P.E.); (O.C.)
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2
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Kelly AM, Van Meer O, Keijzers G, Motiejunaite J, Jones P, Body R, Craig S, Karamercan M, Klim S, Harjola VP, Verschuren F, Holdgate A, Christ M, Golea A, Graham CA, Capsec J, Barletta C, Garcia-Castrillo L, Kuan WS, Laribi S. Get with the guidelines: management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in emergency departments in Europe and Australasia is sub-optimal. Intern Med J 2021; 50:200-208. [PMID: 30989793 DOI: 10.1111/imj.14323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Maree Kelly
- Joseph Epstein Centre for Emergency Medicine Research, Western Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Medicine, Melbourne Medical School - Western Precinct, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Oene Van Meer
- Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gerben Keijzers
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Gold Coast Unviersty Hospital, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia.,Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia.,School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Justina Motiejunaite
- INSERM, BIOmarkers in CArdioNeuroVAScular diseases, Paris, France.,Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, APHP, Saint Louis Lariboisière Hospitals, Paris, France.,Department of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences Kaunas Clinics, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Peter Jones
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Auckland City Hosptial, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Richard Body
- Emergency Department, Central Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK.,Cardiovascular Sciences Research Group, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Simon Craig
- Emergency Department, Monash Medical Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mehmet Karamercan
- Faculty of Medicine, Emergency Medicine Department, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey.,Department of Emergency Medicine, Istanbul Bagcilar Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sharon Klim
- Joseph Epstein Centre for Emergency Medicine Research, Western Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Veli-Pekka Harjola
- Emergency Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Emergency Medicine and Services, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Franck Verschuren
- Department of Acute Medicine, Université Catholique de Louvain, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Anna Holdgate
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Liverpool Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Southwest Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Michael Christ
- Department of Emergency Care, Luzerner Kantonsspital, Luzern, Switzerland.,Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Adela Golea
- Emergency Department of the University County Emergency Hospital, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Colin A Graham
- Prince of Wales Hospital, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jean Capsec
- Emergency Medicine Department, Tours University Hospital, Tours, France
| | - Cinzia Barletta
- Department of Emergency Medicine, St Eugenio Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Win S Kuan
- Emergency Medicine Department, National University Hospital, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Said Laribi
- Emergency Medicine Department, Tours University Hospital, Tours, France.,School of Medicine, François-Rabelais University, Tours, France
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3
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Gray LEK, Ponsonby AL, Lin TX, O'Hely M, Collier F, Ranganathan S, Sly PD, Pezic A, Tang MLK, Burgner D, Vuillermin P. High incidence of respiratory disease in Australian infants despite low rate of maternal cigarette smoking. J Paediatr Child Health 2019; 55:1437-1444. [PMID: 31037791 DOI: 10.1111/jpc.14436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
AIM The burden of wheezing illnesses in Australian infants has not been documented since the success of initiatives to reduce maternal cigarette smoking. We aimed to determine the incidence of wheeze and related health-care utilisation during the first year of life among a contemporary Australian birth cohort. METHODS A birth cohort of 1074 infants was assembled between 2010 and 2013. Parents completed questionnaires periodically. Several non-exclusive infant respiratory disease phenotypes were defined, including any wheeze, wheeze with shortness of breath and recurrent wheeze. Skin prick testing was performed to determine atopic wheeze. Health-care utilisation for respiratory disease was determined from questionnaires and hospital medical records. RESULTS Retention to 1 year was 840/1074 (83%). The incidence of any wheeze was 51.8% (95% confidence interval (CI) 48.3-55.2%), wheeze with shortness of breath 20.6% (95% CI 17.9-23.5), recurrent wheeze 19.4% (95% CI 16.8-22.2) and atopic wheeze 6% (95% CI 4.6-7.8). Respiratory illness resulted in primary health-care utilisation in 82.2% (95% CI 79.3-84.8) of participants and hospital presentation in 8.8% (95% CI 7.2-10.6). Maternal smoking during pregnancy was uncommon (15.7%) and was not associated with wheeze or health resource utilisation. Male gender, familial atopy and asthma and smaller household size were associated with a higher incidence of wheeze. CONCLUSIONS The incidence of wheezing illness among Australian infants remains high despite relatively low rates of maternal smoking during pregnancy. The majority of the health-care burden is borne by primary health-care services. Further research is required to inform novel prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence E K Gray
- Faculty of Health, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.,Child Health Research Unit, Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Anne-Louise Ponsonby
- Population Health and Infection and Immunity Themes, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tiffany X Lin
- Child Health Research Unit, Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Martin O'Hely
- Faculty of Health, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.,Population Health and Infection and Immunity Themes, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Fiona Collier
- Faculty of Health, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.,Child Health Research Unit, Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.,Population Health and Infection and Immunity Themes, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sarath Ranganathan
- Population Health and Infection and Immunity Themes, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Respiratory Medicine and Allergy and Immunology Departments, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peter D Sly
- Child Health Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Angela Pezic
- Population Health and Infection and Immunity Themes, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mimi L K Tang
- Population Health and Infection and Immunity Themes, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Respiratory Medicine and Allergy and Immunology Departments, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - David Burgner
- Population Health and Infection and Immunity Themes, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peter Vuillermin
- Faculty of Health, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.,Child Health Research Unit, Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.,Population Health and Infection and Immunity Themes, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Critchlow N, Stead M, Moodie C, Angus K, Eadie D, MacKintosh AM. Difference between recommended retail price and sales price for tobacco products in independent and convenience (small) retailers before and after the introduction of standardised tobacco packaging in the UK. Tob Control 2019; 28:449-456. [PMID: 30120200 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2018-054409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
AIM Recommended retail price (RRP) is a marketing strategy used by tobacco companies to maintain competitiveness, communicate product positioning and drive sales. We explored small retailer adherence to RRP before and after the introduction of the Standardised Packaging of Tobacco Products Regulations in the UK (fully implemented on 20 May 2017) which mandated standardised packaging of cigarettes and rolling tobacco, set minimum pack/pouch sizes and prohibited price-marking. METHOD Monthly electronic point of sale data from 500 small retailers in England, Scotland and Wales were analysed. From May 2016 to October 2017, we monitored 20 of the best-selling fully branded tobacco products (15 factory-made cigarettes, 5 rolling tobacco) and their standardised equivalents. Adherence to RRP was measured as the average difference (%) between monthly RRPs and sales prices by pack type (fully branded vs standardised), price-marking on packaging and price segment. RESULTS The average difference between RRP and sales price increased from +0.36% above RRP (SD=0.72) in May 2016, when only fully branded packs were sold, to +1.37% in October 2017 (SD=0.30), when standardised packs were mandatory. Increases above RRP for fully branded packs increased as they were phased out, with deviation greater for non-price-marked packs and premium products. DISCUSSION Despite tobacco companies emphasising the importance of RRP, small retailers implemented small increases above RRP as standardised packaging was introduced. Consequently, any intended price changes by tobacco companies in response to the legislation (ie, to increase affordability or brand positioning) may be confounded by retailer behaviour, and such deviation may increase consumer price sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Critchlow
- Institute for Social Marketing, UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - Martine Stead
- Institute for Social Marketing, UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - Crawford Moodie
- Institute for Social Marketing, UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
- Centre for Tobacco Control Research, Institute for Social Marketing, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - Kathryn Angus
- Institute for Social Marketing, UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - Douglas Eadie
- Institute for Social Marketing, UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - Anne-Marie MacKintosh
- Institute for Social Marketing, UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
- Centre for Tobacco Control Research, Institute for Social Marketing, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
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5
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Hing N, Vitartas P, Lamont M. Understanding persuasive attributes of sports betting advertisements: A conjoint analysis of selected elements. J Behav Addict 2017; 6:658-668. [PMID: 29025268 PMCID: PMC6034954 DOI: 10.1556/2006.6.2017.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and aims Despite recent growth in sports betting advertising, minimal research has examined the influence of different advertising message attributes on betting attitudes and behaviors. This study aimed to identify which attributes of sports betting advertisements most engage attention, interest, desire and likelihood of betting among non-problem, low-risk, moderate-risk, and problem gamblers. Methods A novel approach utilizing an experimental design incorporating conjoint analysis examined the effects of: three message formats (commentary, on-screen display, and studio crossover); four appeals (neutral, jovial, ease of placing the bet, and sense of urgency); three types of presenters (match presenter, sports betting operator, and attractive non-expert female presenter); and four bet types (traditional, exotic key event, risk-free, and micro-bet). A professional film company using paid actors produced 20 mock television advertisements simulating typical gambling messages based on the conjoint approach. These were embedded into an online survey of 611 Australian adults. Results The most attention-grabbing attributes were type of presenter and type of bet. The attractive non-expert female presenter gained more attention from all gambler groups than other presenters. The type of bet was most persuasive in converting attention into likely betting among all gambler groups, with the risk-free bet being much more persuasive than other bet types. Problem gamblers were distinct by their greater attraction to in-play micro-bets. Discussion and conclusion Given the potential for incentivized bets offering financial inducements and for in-play micro-bets to undermine harm minimization and consumer protection, regulators and wagering operators should reconsider whether these bet types are consistent with their responsible gambling objectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerilee Hing
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Bundaberg, QLD, Australia,Corresponding author: Nerilee Hing; School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, University Drive, Bundaberg, QLD 4670, Australia; Phone: +61 7 4150 7700; Fax: +61 7 4150 7080; E-mail:
| | - Peter Vitartas
- La Trobe Business School, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Matthew Lamont
- School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross University, Coolangatta, QLD, Australia
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6
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Li J, Newcombe R, Guiney H, Walton D. Impact on Smoking Behavior of the New Zealand Annual Increase in Tobacco Tax: Data for the Fifth and Sixth Year of Increases. Nicotine Tob Res 2017; 19:1491-1498. [PMID: 27624346 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntw233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Introduction New Zealand has implemented a series of seven annual increases in tobacco tax since 2010. All tax increases, except for the first in the series, were preannounced. It is unusual for governments to introduce small, persistent, and predictable increases in tobacco tax, and little is known about the impact of such a strategy. This paper evaluates the impact of the fifth and sixth annual increases. Methods Smokers' behaviors were self-reported during the 3-month period before, and the 3-month period after, the two annual increases. Responses to the two increases were analyzed separately, and generalized estimating equations models were used to control for sociodemographic variables, recent quit attempts, and the research design. Results Findings were consistent across years. The proportion of participants who made a smoking-related (54%-56% before and after each tax increase) or product-related change (fifth tax increase: 17%-19%; sixth tax increase: 21%-22%) did not significantly alter from before to after each tax increase. However, it should be noted that the proportion of participants making smoking-related changes was generally high, even prior to each increase. For example, before the 2015 tax increase, 1% reported quitting completely, 21% trying to quit, and 53% cutting down. Conclusions In New Zealand, with its series of annual tobacco tax increases since 2010, there were no significant changes in smoking- or product-related behavior associated with the fifth and sixth increases. Nevertheless, overall cessation-related activity was high, with a majority of participants reporting either quitting and/or cutting down recently. Implications Little is known about the impact of small, persistent, predictable tobacco tax increases on smoking behavior. This study evaluated the impact of the fifth (in 2014) and sixth (2015) tax increases in an annual series implemented in New Zealand. Although there were no detectable changes in smoking behaviors from before to after each tax increase, self-reported cessation-related activity was high overall (i.e., even prior to each increase). Given that there are multiple possible interpretations for these findings, more in-depth time-series analyses are needed to understand how such a tax strategy influences smoking behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy Li
- Research and Evaluation Unit, Health Promotion Agency, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Rhiannon Newcombe
- Research and Evaluation Unit, Health Promotion Agency, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Hayley Guiney
- Research and Evaluation Unit, Health Promotion Agency, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Darren Walton
- Department of Psychology, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
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7
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Havard A, Tran DT, Kemp-Casey A, Einarsdóttir K, Preen DB, Jorm LR. Tobacco policy reform and population-wide antismoking activities in Australia: the impact on smoking during pregnancy. Tob Control 2017; 27:552-559. [PMID: 28778972 PMCID: PMC6109232 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-053715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Introduction This study examined the impact of antismoking activities targeting the general population and an advertising campaign targeting smoking during pregnancy on the prevalence of smoking during pregnancy in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Methods Monthly prevalence of smoking during pregnancy was calculated using linked health records for all pregnancies resulting in a birth (800 619) in NSW from 2003 to 2011. Segmented regression of interrupted time series data assessed the effects of the extension of the ban on smoking in enclosed public places to include licensed premises (evaluated in combination with the mandating of graphic warnings on cigarette packs), television advertisements targeting smoking in the general population, print and online magazine advertisements targeting smoking during pregnancy and increased tobacco tax. Analyses were conducted for all pregnancies, and for the population stratified by maternal age, parity and socioeconomic status. Further analyses adjusted for the effect of the Baby Bonus maternity payment. Results Prevalence of smoking during pregnancy decreased from 2003 to 2011 overall (0.39% per month), and for all strata examined. For pregnancies overall, none of the evaluated initiatives was associated with a change in the trend of smoking during pregnancy. Significant changes associated with increased tobacco tax and the extension of the smoking ban (in combination with graphic warnings) were found in some strata. Conclusions The declining prevalence of smoking during pregnancy between 2003 and 2011, while encouraging, does not appear to be directly related to general population antismoking activities or a pregnancy-specific campaign undertaken in this period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alys Havard
- Centre for Big Data Research in Health, School of Population and Global Health, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Duong T Tran
- Centre for Big Data Research in Health, School of Population and Global Health, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Anna Kemp-Casey
- Centre for Health Services Research, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Kristjana Einarsdóttir
- Centre of Public Health Sciences and Unit for Nutrition Research, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - David B Preen
- Centre for Health Services Research, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Louisa R Jorm
- Centre for Big Data Research in Health, School of Population and Global Health, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate cigarette branding strategies used to segment a market with some of the toughest tobacco controls. To document brand variant and packaging portfolios and assess the role played by colour before plain packaging, as well as consider the threat that recently implemented legislation poses for tobacco manufacturers. DATA SOURCES Brand variant and packaging details were extracted from manufacturer ingredient reports, as well as a retail audit of Australian supermarkets. Details were also collected for other product categories to provide perspective on cigarette portfolios. METHODS Secondary and primary data sources were analysed to evaluate variant and packaging portfolio strategy. RESULTS In Australia, 12 leading cigarette brands supported 120 brand variants. Of these 61 had names with a specific colour and a further 26 had names with colour connotation. There were 338 corresponding packaging configurations, with most variants available in the primary cigarette distribution channel in four pack size options. CONCLUSIONS Tobacco companies microsegment Australian consumers with highly differentiated product offerings and a family branding strategy that helps ameliorate the effects of marketing restrictions. To date, tobacco controls have had little negative impact upon variant and packaging portfolios, which have continued to expand. Colour has become a key visual signifier differentiating one variant from the next, and colour names are used to extend brand lines. However, the role of colour, as a heuristic to simplify consumer decision-making processes, becomes largely redundant with plain packaging. Plain packaging's impact upon manufacturers' branding strategies is therefore likely to be significant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Greenland
- Faculty of Business and Enterprise, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
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Scollo M, Bayly M, Wakefield M. The advertised price of cigarette packs in retail outlets across Australia before and after the implementation of plain packaging: a repeated measures observational study. Tob Control 2015; 24:ii82-ii89. [PMID: 28407616 PMCID: PMC4392197 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2014-051950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study monitored the advertised price of the most prominently promoted and the cheapest single packs of cigarettes in Australian retail outlets before and after the implementation of plain packaging. METHODS A panel of 421 outlets in four large Australian cities was visited monthly from May 2012 to August 2013 and the brand, pack size and price of the most-prominently listed and lowest-priced single cigarette pack were recorded from each store's tobacco price board. Changes in the inflation-adjusted stick price were examined using linear mixed models, controlling for fixed effects of city, store type, area socioeconomic status and random effects of time. The adjusted stick price was also examined over time by tobacco manufacturer and pack size. RESULTS The inflation-adjusted stick price of the most-prominently advertised single packs was significantly higher than in May-July 2012 from August-October 2012 for mainstream and premium brands and from February-April 2013 for value brands. Adjusted average stick prices of lowest-priced packs in August 2013 were $0.02 (95% CI $0.02 to $0.03, p<0.001) higher than in May-July 2012 ($Aug13). A large real increase in stick price was seen in February-April 2013 across all major manufacturers, market segments and pack size categories. DISCUSSION The price of cigarettes most prominently promoted on price boards did not decrease in the months following implementation of Australia's plain packaging legislation. Retail prices continued to increase above the level resulting from automatic indexation of excise/customs duty even at the lowest-priced end of the Australian market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Scollo
- Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, Cancer Council Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Megan Bayly
- Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, Cancer Council Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Melanie Wakefield
- Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, Cancer Council Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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10
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Scollo M, Bayly M, Wakefield M. Plain packaging: a logical progression for tobacco control in one of the world's 'darkest markets'. Tob Control 2015; 24:ii3-ii8. [PMID: 28407604 PMCID: PMC4392189 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2014-052048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Revised: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The Australian approach to tobacco control has been a comprehensive one, encompassing mass media campaigns, consumer information, taxation policy, access for smokers to smoking cessation advice and pharmaceutical treatments, protection from exposure to tobacco smoke and regulation of promotion. World-first legislation to standardise the packaging of tobacco was a logical next step to further reduce misleadingly reassuring promotion of a product known for the past 50 years to kill a high proportion of its long-term users. Similarly, refreshed, larger pack warnings which started appearing on packs at the end of 2012 were a logical progression of efforts to ensure that consumers are better informed about the health risks associated with smoking. Regardless of the immediate effects of legislation, further progress will continue to require a comprehensive approach to maintain momentum and ensure that government efforts on one front are not undermined by more vigorous efforts and greater investment by tobacco companies elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Scollo
- Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, Cancer Council Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Megan Bayly
- Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, Cancer Council Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Melanie Wakefield
- Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, Cancer Council Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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11
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Backholer K, Beauchamp A, Ball K, Turrell G, Martin J, Woods J, Peeters A. A framework for evaluating the impact of obesity prevention strategies on socioeconomic inequalities in weight. Am J Public Health 2014; 104:e43-50. [PMID: 25121810 PMCID: PMC4167106 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2014.302066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
We developed a theoretical framework to organize obesity prevention interventions by their likely impact on the socioeconomic gradient of weight. The degree to which an intervention involves individual agency versus structural change influences socioeconomic inequalities in weight. Agentic interventions, such as standalone social marketing, increase socioeconomic inequalities. Structural interventions, such as food procurement policies and restrictions on unhealthy foods in schools, show equal or greater benefit for lower socioeconomic groups. Many obesity prevention interventions belong to the agento-structural types of interventions, and account for the environment in which health behaviors occur, but they require a level of individual agency for behavioral change, including workplace design to encourage exercise and fiscal regulation of unhealthy foods or beverages. Obesity prevention interventions differ in their effectiveness across socioeconomic groups. Limiting further increases in socioeconomic inequalities in obesity requires implementation of structural interventions. Further empirical evaluation, especially of agento-structural type interventions, remains crucial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Backholer
- Kathryn Backholer, Anna Peeters, and Alison Beauchamp are with the Obesity and Population Health Unit, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia. Kylie Ball is with the Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia. Gavin Turrell is with the School of Public Health and Social Work/Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Jane Martin is with the Obesity Policy Coalition, Melbourne, Australia. Julie Woods is with the School of Exercise and Nutrition Science, Deakin University
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12
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Gilmore AB, Tavakoly B, Hiscock R, Taylor G. Smoking patterns in Great Britain: the rise of cheap cigarette brands and roll your own (RYO) tobacco. J Public Health (Oxf) 2014; 37:78-88. [PMID: 25118219 PMCID: PMC4340325 DOI: 10.1093/pubmed/fdu048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Britain, the tobacco industry segments cigarettes into four price categories-premium, mid-price, economy and ultra-low-price (ULP). Our previous work shows that tobacco companies have kept ULP prices stable in real terms. Roll your own (RYO) tobacco remains cheaper still. METHODS Analysis of 2001-08 General Household Survey data to examine trends in use of these cheap products and, using logistic regression, the profile of users of these products. RESULTS Among smokers, the proportion using cheap products (economy, ULP and RYO combined) increased significantly in almost all age groups and geographic areas. Increases were most marked in under 24 year olds, 76% of whom smoked cheap cigarettes by 2008. All cheap products were more commonly used in lower socio-economic groups. Men and younger smokers were more likely to smoke RYO while women smoked economy brands. Smokers outside London and the South East of England were more likely to smoke some form of cheap tobacco even once socio-economic differences were accounted for. CONCLUSIONS This paper demonstrates that cheap tobacco use is increasing among young and disadvantaged smokers compromising declines in population smoking prevalence. Thus, tobacco industry pricing appears to play a key role in explaining smoking patterns and inequalities in smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna B Gilmore
- Department for Health and UK Centre for Tobacco Control Studies, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Behrooz Tavakoly
- Department for Health and UK Centre for Tobacco Control Studies, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Rosemary Hiscock
- Department for Health and UK Centre for Tobacco Control Studies, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Gordon Taylor
- Department for Health and UK Centre for Tobacco Control Studies, University of Bath, Bath, UK
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Lee JGL, Henriksen L, Myers AE, Dauphinee AL, Ribisl KM. A systematic review of store audit methods for assessing tobacco marketing and products at the point of sale. Tob Control 2014; 23:98-106. [PMID: 23322313 PMCID: PMC3849332 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2012-050807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Over four-fifths of reported expenditures for marketing tobacco products occur at the retail point of sale (POS). To date, no systematic review has synthesised the methods used for surveillance of POS marketing. This review sought to describe the audit objectives, methods and measures used to study retail tobacco environments. METHODS We systematically searched 11 academic databases for papers indexed on or before 14 March 2012, identifying 2906 papers. Two coders independently reviewed each abstract or full text to identify papers with the following criteria: (1) data collectors visited and assessed (2) retail environments using (3) a data collection instrument for (4) tobacco products or marketing. We excluded papers where limited measures of products and/or marketing were incidental. Two abstractors independently coded included papers for research aims, locale, methods, measures used and measurement properties. We calculated descriptive statistics regarding the use of four P's of marketing (product, price, placement, promotion) and for measures of study design, sampling strategy and sample size. RESULTS We identified 88 store audit studies. Most studies focus on enumerating the number of signs or other promotions. Several strengths, particularly in sampling, are noted, but substantial improvements are indicated in the reporting of reliability, validity and audit procedures. CONCLUSIONS Audits of POS tobacco marketing have made important contributions to understanding industry behaviour, the uses of marketing and resulting health behaviours. Increased emphasis on standardisation and the use of theory are needed in the field. We propose key components of audit methodology that should be routinely reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph G. L. Lee
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Lisa Henriksen
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | - Allison E. Myers
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Amanda L. Dauphinee
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | - Kurt M. Ribisl
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Fix BV, Hyland A, O'Connor RJ, Cummings KM, Fong GT, Chaloupka FJ, Licht AS. A novel approach to estimating the prevalence of untaxed cigarettes in the USA: findings from the 2009 and 2010 international tobacco control surveys. Tob Control 2013; 23 Suppl 1:i61-6. [PMID: 23970794 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2013-051038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increases in tobacco taxes are effective in reducing tobacco consumption, but because of the addictive nature of cigarettes, smokers often seek out less expensive sources of cigarettes. The objective of this study is to estimate the prevalence of cigarette packs that are untaxed by the state in which the participant resides in a sample of US smokers at two time points. METHODS Data for this study were taken from the 2009 and 2010 waves of the International Tobacco Control United States Survey. Members of this nationally representative cohort of smokers were invited to send us an unopened pack of their usual brand of cigarettes. RESULTS In 2009, 318 packs were received from 401 eligible participants (79%). In 2010, 366 packs were received from 491 eligible participants (75%). In total, 20% of the packs in 2009 and 21% in 2010 were classified as untaxed by the participant's state of residence. The prevalence of untaxed cigarettes was higher in states with higher-excise taxes. Smokers who do not have a plan to quit were significantly more likely to have sent back a pack that was classified as untaxed by the participant's state of residence. CONCLUSIONS One in five packs were untaxed with rates higher in states with higher-excise taxes. It is unclear whether these estimates differ from the actual prevalence of cigarettes that are untaxed by a smoker's state of residence. Harmonisation of excise tax rates across all 50 US states might be one method of reducing or eliminating the incentive to avoid or evade these taxes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian V Fix
- Department of Health Behavior, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, , Buffalo, New York, USA
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15
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Thomas DP, Ferguson M, Johnston V, Brimblecombe J. Impact and perceptions of tobacco tax increase in remote Australian Aboriginal communities. Nicotine Tob Res 2012; 15:1099-106. [PMID: 23166311 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/nts232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We sought to assess the impact of a 25% tax excise rise on tobacco sales in Aboriginal communities in remote Australia and to explore local perceptions about tobacco tax rises and their impact. METHODS Tobacco sales data were collected from 18 stores in small remote Aboriginal communities from October 2009 to December 2010. Sales in the 7 months before and after the tax increase were compared. Interviews were conducted with 54 informants in 6 communities. RESULTS There was a nonsignificant 2.2% average reduction (95% CI = -5 to 10) in total tobacco sold in a store in the 7 months after the price increase compared with the 7 months before the price increase, with a large variation across the 18 stores. The magnitude of this apparent impact may have been reduced by seasonal effects. There were increased demands to share cigarettes, with a perception that there was increased reliance on those with more disposable income to purchase cigarettes for other smokers. The main reasons given for not quitting or reducing smoking were dependence, the normative nature of smoking, and the lack of support to quit. All Aboriginal interviewees supported price increases as important in reducing smoking. CONCLUSIONS The wide confidence interval around our estimated reduction in consumption means that the tax increase could have either been associated or not with a reduction in consumption. Future excise rises are supported but should be carefully monitored in Australian Indigenous populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Thomas
- Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia.
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16
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17
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Impact of tobacco control interventions on smoking initiation, cessation, and prevalence: a systematic review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2012; 2012:961724. [PMID: 22719777 PMCID: PMC3376479 DOI: 10.1155/2012/961724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Background. Policymakers need estimates of the impact of tobacco control (TC) policies to set priorities and targets for reducing tobacco use. We systematically reviewed the independent effects of TC policies on smoking behavior. Methods. We searched MEDLINE (through January 2012) and EMBASE and other databases through February 2009, looking for studies published after 1989 in any language that assessed the effects of each TC intervention on smoking prevalence, initiation, cessation, or price participation elasticity. Paired reviewers extracted data from studies that isolated the impact of a single TC intervention. Findings. We included 84 studies. The strength of evidence quantifying the independent effect on smoking prevalence was high for increasing tobacco prices and moderate for smoking bans in public places and antitobacco mass media campaigns. Limited direct evidence was available to quantify the effects of health warning labels and bans on advertising and sponsorship. Studies were too heterogeneous to pool effect estimates. Interpretations. We found evidence of an independent effect for several TC policies on smoking prevalence. However, we could not derive precise estimates of the effects across different settings because of variability in the characteristics of the intervention, level of policy enforcement, and underlying tobacco control environment.
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Zhu SH, Lee M, Zhuang YL, Gamst A, Wolfson T. Interventions to increase smoking cessation at the population level: how much progress has been made in the last two decades? Tob Control 2012; 21:110-8. [PMID: 22345233 PMCID: PMC3446870 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews the literature on smoking cessation interventions, with a focus on the last 20 years (1991 to 2010). These two decades witnessed major development in a wide range of cessation interventions, from pharmacotherapy to tobacco price increases. It was expected that these interventions would work conjointly to increase the cessation rate on the population level. This paper examines population data from the USA, from 1991 to 2010, using the National Health Interview Surveys. Results indicate there is no consistent trend of increase in the population cessation rate over the last two decades. Various explanations are presented for this lack of improvement, and the key concept of impact = effectiveness × reach is critically examined. Finally, it suggests that the field of cessation has focused so much on developing and promoting interventions to improve smokers' odds of success that it has largely neglected to investigate how to get more smokers to try to quit and to try more frequently. Future research should examine whether increasing the rate of quit attempts would be key to improving the population cessation rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Hong Zhu
- University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0905, USA.
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19
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Dunlop SM, Perez D, Cotter T. Australian smokers' and recent quitters' responses to the increasing price of cigarettes in the context of a tobacco tax increase. Addiction 2011; 106:1687-95. [PMID: 21561498 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03492.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To track smokers' responses to the increasing price of cigarettes after a tax increase, and assess socio-demographic differences in responses. DESIGN The Cancer Institute NSW's Tobacco Tracking Survey (CITTS) is a continuous tracking telephone survey. Weekly data were collected between May and September 2010. SETTINGS New South Wales, Australia. PARTICIPANTS A total of 834 smokers and 163 recent quitters (quit in last 12 months). MEASUREMENTS Responses to the price increase included smoking-related changes (tried to quit, cut down) and product-related changes (changed to lower priced brands, started using loose tobacco, bought in bulk). Recent quitters were asked how much the increasing price of cigarettes influenced them to quit. FINDINGS Overall, 47.5% of smokers made smoking-related changes and 11.4% made product-related changes without making smoking-related changes. Multinomial logistic regressions showed that younger smokers (versus older) were more likely to make product-related changes and smoking-related changes in comparison to no changes. Low- or moderate-income smokers (versus high-income) were more likely to make smoking-related changes compared to no changes. Highly addicted smokers (versus low addicted) were more likely to make product-related changes and less likely to make smoking-related changes. The proportion of smokers making only product-related changes decreased with time, while smoking-related changes increased. Recent quitters who quit after the tax increase (versus before) were more likely to report that price influenced them. CONCLUSIONS The effect of increasing cigarette prices on smoking does not appear to be mitigated by using cheaper cigarette products or sources. These results support the use of higher cigarette prices to encourage smoking cessation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally M Dunlop
- Sydney School of Public Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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White VM, Warne CD, Spittal MJ, Durkin S, Purcell K, Wakefield MA. What impact have tobacco control policies, cigarette price and tobacco control programme funding had on Australian adolescents' smoking? Findings over a 15-year period. Addiction 2011; 106:1493-502. [PMID: 21401766 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03429.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To assess the impact of tobacco control policies relating to youth access, clean indoor air and tobacco advertising at point-of-sale and outdoors, in addition to cigarette price and per capita tobacco control spending, on adolescent smoking prevalence. DESIGN Repeated cross-sectional surveys. Logistic regression analyses examined association between policies and smoking prevalence. SETTING Australia, 1990-2005. PARTICIPANTS A nationally representative sample of secondary students (aged 12-17 years) participating in a triennial survey (sample size per survey range: 20 560 to 27 480). MEASUREMENTS Students' report of past-month smoking. In each jurisdiction, extent of implementation of the three policies for the year of the survey was determined. For each survey year, national per capita tobacco control spending was determined and jurisdiction-specific 12-month change in cigarette price obtained. FINDINGS Extent of implementation of the three policy areas varied between states and over the survey years. Multivariate analyses that adjusted for demographic factors, year and all tobacco control variables showed that 12-month cigarette price increases [odds ratio (OR): 0.98, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.97-0.99], greater per capita tobacco control spending (OR: 0.99, 95% CI: 0.98-0.99) and stronger implementation of clean indoor air policies (OR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.92-0.94) were associated with reduced smoking prevalence. CONCLUSIONS Adult-directed, population-based tobacco control policies such as clean indoor air laws and increased prices of cigarettes, implemented as part of a well-funded comprehensive tobacco control programme are associated with lower adolescent smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria M White
- Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, The Cancer Council Victoria, 1 Rathdowne Street, Carlton, Victoria, Australia.
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How do price minimizing behaviors impact smoking cessation? Findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2011; 8:1671-91. [PMID: 21655144 PMCID: PMC3108134 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph8051671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 05/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This paper examines how price minimizing behaviors impact efforts to stop smoking. Data on 4,988 participants from the International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation (ITC) Four-Country Survey who were smokers at baseline (wave 5) and interviewed at a 1 year follow-up were used. We examined whether price minimizing behaviors at baseline predicted: (1) cessation, (2) quit attempts, and (3) successful quit attempts at one year follow up using multivariate logistic regression modeling. A subset analysis included 3,387 participants who were current smokers at waves 5 and 6 and were followed through wave 7 to explore effects of changing purchase patterns on cessation. Statistical tests for interaction were performed to examine the joint effect of SES and price/tax avoidance behaviors on cessation outcomes. Smokers who engaged in any price/tax avoidance behaviors were 28% less likely to report cessation. Persons using low/untaxed sources were less likely to quit at follow up, those purchasing cartons were less likely to make quit attempts and quit, and those using discount cigarettes were less likely to succeed, conditional on making attempts. Respondents who utilized multiple behaviors simultaneously were less likely to make quit attempts and to succeed. SES did not modify the effects of price minimizing behaviors on cessation outcomes. The data from this paper indicate that the availability of lower priced cigarette alternatives may attenuate public health efforts aimed at to reduce reducing smoking prevalence through price and tax increases among all SES groups.
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Martire KA, Mattick RP, Doran CM, Hall WD. Cigarette tax and public health: what are the implications of financially stressed smokers for the effects of price increases on smoking prevalence? Addiction 2011; 106:622-30. [PMID: 21054618 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03174.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS This paper models the predicted impact of tobacco price increases proposed in the United States and Australia during 2009 on smoking prevalence in 2010 while taking account of the effects of financial stress among smokers on cessation rates. METHODS Two models of smoking prevalence were developed for each country. In model 1, prevalence rates were determined by price elasticity estimates. In model 2 price elasticity was moderated by financial stress. Each model was used to estimate smoking prevalence in 2010 in Australia and the United States. RESULTS Proposed price increases resulted in a 1.89% and 7.84% decrease in smoking participation among low socio-economic status (SES) groups in the United States and Australia, respectively. Model 1 overestimated the number of individuals expected to quit in both the United States (0.13% of smokers) and Australia (0.36% of smokers) by failing to take account of the differential effects of the tax on financially stressed smokers. The proportion of low-income smokers under financial stress increased in both countries in 2010 (by 1.06% in the United States and 3.75% in Australia). CONCLUSIONS The inclusion of financial stress when modelling the impact of price on smoking prevalence suggests that the population health returns of increased cigarette price will diminish over time. As it is likely that the proportion of low-income smokers under financial stress will also increase in 2010, future population-based approaches to reducing smoking will need to address this factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy A Martire
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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Wakefield MA, Durkin S, Spittal MJ, Siahpush M, Scollo M, Simpson JA, Chapman S, White V, Hill D. Impact of tobacco control policies and mass media campaigns on monthly adult smoking prevalence. Am J Public Health 2008; 98:1443-50. [PMID: 18556601 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2007.128991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We sought to assess the impact of several tobacco control policies and televised antismoking advertising on adult smoking prevalence. METHODS We used a population survey in which smoking prevalence was measured each month from 1995 through 2006. Time-series analysis assessed the effect on smoking prevalence of televised antismoking advertising (with gross audience rating points [GRPs] per month), cigarette costliness, monthly sales of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) and bupropion, and smoke-free restaurant laws. RESULTS Increases in cigarette costliness and exposure to tobacco control media campaigns significantly reduced smoking prevalence. We found a 0.3-percentage-point reduction in smoking prevalence by either exposing the population to televised antismoking ads an average of almost 4 times per month (390 GRPs) or by increasing the costliness of a pack of cigarettes by 0.03% of gross average weekly earnings. Monthly sales of NRT and bupropion, exposure to NRT advertising, and smoke-free restaurant laws had no detectable impact on smoking prevalence. CONCLUSIONS Increases in the real price of cigarettes and tobacco control mass media campaigns broadcast at sufficient exposure levels and at regular intervals are critical for reducing population smoking prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie A Wakefield
- Centre for Behavioral Research in Cancer, The Cancer Council Victoria, 1 Rathdowne Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia.
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Young D, Borland R, Hammond D, Cummings KM, Devlin E, Yong HH, O'Connnor RJ. Prevalence and attributes of roll-your-own smokers in the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. Tob Control 2007; 15 Suppl 3:iii76-82. [PMID: 16754951 PMCID: PMC2593057 DOI: 10.1136/tc.2005.013268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Roll-your-own (RYO) cigarettes are often substantially less expensive than factory made (FM) cigarettes, and appear to be increasing in popularity-perhaps because smokers seek out less expensive options to maintain their nicotine addiction. There is surprisingly little research available on the actual prevalence of RYO cigarette usage, and even less on the attributes of those who smoke RYO cigarettes. OBJECTIVES This study has two objectives: (1) to compare the prevalence of RYO versus FM cigarette usage among adult smokers in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States; and (2) to compare the attributes of exclusive FM smokers, exclusive RYO smokers, and those who report "mixed" RYO and FM use. DESIGN The data were collected from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey (ITC-4), a random digit dialed telephone survey of representative samples of over 9046 adult smokers from the following four countries: Australia (n = 2301), Canada (n = 2,206), the UK (n = 2400), and the USA (n = 2,139), surveyed between October and December 2002, and on 6075 smokers followed-up, on average, seven months later. RESULTS The prevalence of RYO cigarette usage varied widely across the four countries, with a low of 6.7% in the USA, to 28.4% in the UK. Exclusive use of RYO cigarettes was more common in the UK than in the other three countries. The use of RYO cigarettes was associated with having a lower annual income, male sex, younger average age, higher level of nicotine addiction, a stronger belief that RYO tobacco is less harmful compared to other forms of tobacco, and a more positive perception of tobacco use. Prevalence of RYO use was relatively stable within each of the four countries between the baseline and follow-up survey. RYO use was unrelated to quitting activity at follow-up, although mixed RYO users who had made a quit attempt were more likely to relapse than either exclusive FM or exclusive RYO smokers. CONCLUSIONS Patterns of RYO use vary considerably across Australia, Canada, the USA, and the UK. RYO smokers are a heterogeneous group; however, the factors associated with RYO use appear to be the same across the four countries studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Young
- VicHealth Centre for Tobacco Control, Cancer Council of Victoria, 100 Drummond Street, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia.
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Gallus S, Schiaffino A, La Vecchia C, Townsend J, Fernandez E. Price and cigarette consumption in Europe. Tob Control 2006; 15:114-9. [PMID: 16565459 PMCID: PMC2563577 DOI: 10.1136/tc.2005.012468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To analyse the variation in demand for tobacco according to price of cigarettes across the European region. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING All the 52 countries of the European region. PARTICIPANTS For each European country, data were collected on annual per adult cigarette consumption (2000), smoking prevalence (most recent), retail price of a pack of local and foreign brand cigarettes (around 2000), the gross domestic product adjusted by purchasing power parities, and the adult population (2000). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Price elasticity of demand for cigarettes (that is, the change in cigarette consumption according to a change in tobacco price) across all the European countries, estimated by double-log multiple linear regression. RESULTS Controlling for male to female prevalence ratio, price elasticities for consumption were -0.46 (95% confidence interval (CI) -0.74 to -0.17) and -0.74 (95% CI -1.13 to -0.35) for local and foreign brand, respectively. The inverse relation between cigarette price and consumption was stronger in countries not in the European Union (price elasticity for foreign brand cigarettes of -0.8) as compared to European Union countries (price elasticity of -0.4). CONCLUSIONS The result that, on average, in Europe smoking consumption decreases 5-7% for a 10% increase in the real price of cigarettes strongly supports an inverse association between price and cigarette smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gallus
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine, for dominant Australian cigarette brands, brand identity (overriding brand vision), brand positioning (brand identity elements communicated to the consumer), brand image (consumers' brand perceptions) and brand equity (financial value). DESIGN Tobacco industry documents, articles from retail trade publications since 1990, and current brand advertising from retail trade publications were searched for information about Australian brands. RESULTS Cigarette manufacturers benefit from their competitors' brand equity as well as their own. The industry sees Australian smokers as far less brand loyal and strongly oriented to "low tar". A few predominantly local brands dominate the market, with variation by state. Successful Australian brands exist in one of three categories: premium, mainstream, and supervalue. Their brand identity essence is as follows. Premium: quality. Mainstream: a good humoured "fair go" for ordinary Australians. Supervalue: value for money. All supervalue brand identities also include freedom, escape, mildness, an aspirational attitude, blue tones, and waterside scenes. Brand image and brand identity is frequently congruent, even when marketing is restricted, and brand image is generally more positive for a smoker's own brand. CONCLUSIONS Tobacco control activities have undermined cigarette brand equity. Further research is needed regarding brand loyalty, low tar, and brand categories. Smokers may respond more positively to tobacco control messages consistent with the identities of their chosen brand, and brand-as-organisation elements may assist. Further marketing restrictions should consider all elements of brand identity, and aim to undermine brand categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Carter
- School of Public Health, Room 128A Building A27, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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