1
|
Cui T, Lu R, Liu C, Wu Z, Jiang X, Liu Y, Pan S, Li Y. Characteristics of second-hand exposure to aerosols from e-cigarettes: A literature review since 2010. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 926:171829. [PMID: 38537812 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, the use of electronic vaping products (also named e-cigarettes) has increased due to their appealing flavors and nicotine delivery without the combustion of tobacco. Although the hazardous substances emitted by e-cigarettes are largely found to be much lower than combustible cigarettes, second-hand exposure to e-cigarette aerosols is not completely benign for bystanders. This work reviewed and synthesized findings on the second-hand exposure of aerosols from e-cigarettes and compared the results with those of the combustible cigarettes. In this review, different results were integrated based upon sampling locations such as residences, vehicles, offices, public places, and experimental exposure chambers. In addition, the factors that influence the second-hand exposure levels were identified by objectively reviewing and integrating the impacts of combustible cigarettes and e-cigarettes on the environment. It is a challenge to compare the literature data directly to assess the effect of smoking/vaping on the indoor environment. The room volume, indoor air exchange rate, puffing duration, and puffing numbers should be considered, which are important factors in determining the degree of pollution. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate the "emission rate" to normalize the concentration of pollutants emitted under various experimental conditions and make the results comparable. This review aims to increase the awareness regarding the harmful effects of the second-hand exposure to aerosols coming from the use of cigarettes and e-cigarettes, identify knowledge gaps, and provide a scientific basis for future policy interventions with regard to the regulation of smoking and vaping.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tong Cui
- School of Civil Engineering, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710054, China; School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710054, China; Key Laboratory of Subsurface Hydrology and Ecology Effects in Arid Region, Ministry of Education, Xi'an 710054, China
| | - Rui Lu
- RELX Science Center, Shenzhen RELX Tech. Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China.
| | - Chuan Liu
- RELX Science Center, Shenzhen RELX Tech. Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China
| | - Zehong Wu
- RELX Science Center, Shenzhen RELX Tech. Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China
| | - Xingtao Jiang
- RELX Science Center, Shenzhen RELX Tech. Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China
| | - Yiqiao Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Song Pan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Green Built Environment and Energy Efficient Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yanpeng Li
- School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710054, China; Key Laboratory of Subsurface Hydrology and Ecology Effects in Arid Region, Ministry of Education, Xi'an 710054, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Naddafi K, Nabizadeh R, Rostamy R, Ebrahimi Kalan M, Hassanvand MS, Fazlzadeh M. Indoor air quality in waterpipe cafés: exposure level to particulate matter. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:26605-26616. [PMID: 31290048 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-05546-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Waterpipe is increasingly being used worldwide. Despite waterpipe cafés gaining popularity among Iranian population, there is a paucity of research measuring exposures and assessing the health effects of waterpipe smoke in these places. The objective of the current study was to investigate the exposure to PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 concentrations and risk assessment of PM2.5 exposures in different age groups in the indoor air of waterpipe cafés. The study samples were taken from indoor air of 50 waterpipe cafés in Ardabil, Iran. The PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 concentrations were assessed using a portable GRIMM dust monitors. The mean (±SD) concentrations of indoor air PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 were 765 ± 352, 624 ± 327, and 500 ± 305 μg/m3, respectively. The mean of HQ (hazard quotient) for PM2.5 in all age groups of 16 and older was > 1, which corresponds to an unacceptably high risk for human health. Also, the mean of ELCRs (excess lifetime cancer risk) for PM2.5 in different age groups exceeded the limit value by the USEPA. The results indicated that the PM concentration is significantly influenced by the number of waterpipe smokers, type of ventilation system, and kind of tobacco. Therefore, waterpipe cafés are a potential source for exposure to PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 and increase the risk of respiratory diseases and cardiovascular problems among waterpipe smokers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kazem Naddafi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Air Pollution Research (CAPR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ramin Nabizadeh
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Air Pollution Research (CAPR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Roohollah Rostamy
- Research Center for Health Sciences and Technologies, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ebrahimi Kalan
- Department of Epidemiology, Robert Stempel College of Public Health, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Mohammad Sadegh Hassanvand
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Center for Air Pollution Research (CAPR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mehdi Fazlzadeh
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Travers MJ, Kulak JA, Vogl L. Waterpipe cafés are hazardous to your health: Determination of a waterpipe specific calibration factor. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2018; 221:48-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
4
|
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Schwartländer
- World Health Organization China Representative Office, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100600, China
| | - Angela Pratt
- World Health Organization China Representative Office, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100600, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Buettner-Schmidt K, Lobo ML, Travers MJ, Boursaw B. Tobacco smoke exposure and impact of smoking legislation on rural and non-rural hospitality venues in North Dakota. Res Nurs Health 2015; 38:268-77. [PMID: 25962373 DOI: 10.1002/nur.21662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this cross-sectional study in a stratified random sample of 135 bars and restaurants in North Dakota was to describe factors that influenced tobacco smoke pollution levels in the venues; to compare the quantity of tobacco smoke pollution by rurality and by presence of local ordinances; and to assess compliance with state and local laws. In data collection in 2012, we measured the indoor air quality indicator of particulate matter (2.5 microns aerodynamic diameter or smaller), calculated average smoking density and occupant density, and determined compliance with state and local smoking ordinances using observational methods. As rurality increased, tobacco smoke pollution in bars increased. A significant association was found between stringency of local laws and level of tobacco smoke pollution, but the strength of the association varied by venue type. Compliance was significantly lower in venues in communities without local ordinances. Controlling for venue type, 69.2% of smoke-free policy's impact on tobacco smoke pollution levels was mediated by observed smoking. This study advances scientific knowledge on the factors influencing tobacco smoke pollution and informs public health advocates and decision makers on policy needs, especially in rural areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Buettner-Schmidt
- Assistant Professor of Nursing Executive Director, Healthy Communities International, North Dakota State University, School of Nursing, Department 2670, PO Box 6050, Fargo, ND, 58108-6050
| | - Marie L Lobo
- University of New Mexico College of Nursing, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Mark J Travers
- Department of Health Behavior, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY
| | - Blake Boursaw
- University of New Mexico College of Nursing, Albuquerque, NM
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Liu R, Jiang Y, Li Q, Hammond SK. Assessing exposure to secondhand smoke in restaurants and bars 2 years after the smoking regulations in Beijing, China. INDOOR AIR 2014; 24:339-349. [PMID: 24387295 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Field observation of patron smoking behaviors and multiple sampling approaches were conducted in 79 restaurants and bars in Beijing, 2010, 2 years after implementing the governmental smoking regulations. Smoking was observed in 30 visits to 22 of the 37 nominal non-smoking venues during peak patronage times and six visits to four of the 14 nominal non-smoking sections. The median area secondhand smoke (SHS) concentrations during peak patronage time were 27, 15, 43, and 40 μg/m(3) in nominal non-smoking venues, non-smoking sections, smoking sections, and smoking venues, respectively, as indicated by the difference between indoor and outdoor PM2.5 levels; and 1.4, 0.6, 1.7, and 2.7 μg/m(3) , respectively, as indicated by airborne nicotine. In the 27 venues with sampling of different approaches and over different time periods, the median nicotine concentration was 1.8 μg/m(3) by one-hour peak patronage-time sampling, 1.1 μg/m(3) by 1-day active area sampling, 2.5 μg/m(3) by 1-day personal sampling, and 2.3 μg/m(3) by week-long passive sampling. No significant differences in nicotine levels were observed among venues/sections with different nominal smoking policies by all sampling approaches except during peak patronage time. This study showed that the 2008 Beijing governmental smoking restriction has been poorly implemented, and SHS exposures in Beijing restaurants and bars remain high. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS The 2008 Beijing governmental smoking restriction requires large restaurants to designate no less than 50% of their dining area as non-smoking, without defining ‘large’ or specifying how the designated smoking sections and non-smoking sections should be separated. Two years after its implementation, smoking is still commonly observed in nominally non-smoking restaurants and bars and in designated non-smoking sections, and both patrons and servers are exposed to high concentrations of secondhand smoke. These results indicate that the Beijing governmental regulation fails to protect the population from SHS exposure in restaurants and bars and that more efforts are needed to pass stronger smoking regulations and ensure better compliance in Beijing, China.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Liu
- School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Christophi CA, Paisi M, Pampaka D, Kehagias M, Vardavas C, Connolly GN. The impact of the Cyprus comprehensive smoking ban on air quality and economic business of hospitality venues. BMC Public Health 2013; 13:76. [PMID: 23351838 PMCID: PMC3567943 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Several countries, including Cyprus, have passed smoke-free legislations in recent years. The goal of this study was to assess the indoor levels of particulate matter in hospitality venues in Cyprus before and after the implementation of the law on 1/1/2010, evaluate the role of enforcement, and examine the legislation’s effect on revenue and employment. Methods Several hospitality venues (n = 35) were sampled between April 2007 and January 2008, and 21 of those were re-sampled after the introduction of the smoking ban, between March and May 2010. Data on enforcement was provided by the Cyprus Police whereas data on revenue and employment within the hospitality industry of Cyprus were obtained from the Cyprus Statistical Service; comparisons were made between the corresponding figures before and after the implementation of the law. Results The median level of PM2.5 associated with secondhand smoking was 161 μg/m3 pre-ban and dropped to 3 μg/m3 post-ban (98% decrease, p < 0.0001). Furthermore, in the year following the ban, the hotel turnover rate increased by 4.1% and the restaurant revenue by 6.4%; employment increased that same year by 7.2% and 1.0%, respectively. Conclusion Smoke free legislations, when enforced, are highly effective in improving the air quality and reducing the levels of indoor PM2.5. Strict enforcement plays a key role in the successful implementation of smoking bans. Even in nations with high smoking prevalence comprehensive smoking laws can be effectively implemented and have no negative effect on accommodation, food, and beverage services.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Costas A Christophi
- Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, 95 Eirinis Street, Rm 201, 3041, Limassol, CYPRUS.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Barnoya J, Navas-Acien A. Protecting the world from secondhand tobacco smoke exposure: where do we stand and where do we go from here? Nicotine Tob Res 2012; 15:789-804. [PMID: 23072872 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/nts200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Article 8 of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control mandates all signatory countries to "protect citizens from exposure to tobacco smoke in workplaces, public transport and indoor public places." Even though there has been great progress in the implementation of Article 8, still most of the world population remains exposed to secondhand smoke (SHS). In this article, we sought to summarize the research that supports Article 8, where do we stand, and current research gaps and future directions. DISCUSSION Secondhand smoke is an established cause of heart disease and several types of cancer. Additional research is needed to reach final conclusions for diseases where evidence is only suggestive of causality. The only solution to SHS exposure in public places is banning smoking indoors. Research on the gaming industry and nightclubs, particularly in developing countries, needs to be disseminated to support their inclusion in smoke-free laws. Aside from indoor bans, additional research is needed for outdoor and multiunit housing bans and in support of measures that protect children and other vulnerable populations. The impact of smoke-free laws on other health outcomes, besides heart disease and respiratory outcomes, is another area where further research is needed. Thirdhand smoke assessment and health effects are also likely to be a topic of further research. As new tobacco products emerge, evaluating SHS exposure and effects will be vital. CONCLUSIONS Furthering research in support of Article 8 can contribute to reach the final goal of protecting everyone from SHS exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joaquin Barnoya
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Department of Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Restaurant and bar owners' exposure to secondhand smoke and attitudes regarding smoking bans in five Chinese cities. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2011; 8:1520-33. [PMID: 21655134 PMCID: PMC3108124 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph8051520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2011] [Revised: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Despite the great progress made towards smoke-free environments, only 9% of countries worldwide mandate smoke-free restaurants and bars. Smoking was generally not regulated in restaurants and bars in China before 2008. This study was designed to examine the public attitudes towards banning smoking in these places in China. A convenience sample of 814 restaurants and bars was selected in five Chinese cities and all owners of these venues were interviewed in person by questionnaire in 2007. Eighty six percent of current nonsmoking subjects had at least one-day exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) at work in the past week. Only 51% of subjects knew SHS could cause heart disease. Only 17% and 11% of subjects supported prohibiting smoking completely in restaurants and in bars, respectively, while their support for restricting smoking to designated areas was much higher. Fifty three percent of subjects were willing to prohibit or restrict smoking in their own venues. Of those unwilling to do so, 82% thought smoking bans would reduce revenue, and 63% thought indoor air quality depended on ventilation rather than smoking bans. These results showed that there was support for smoking bans among restaurant or bar owners in China despite some knowledge gaps. To facilitate smoking bans in restaurants and bars, it is important to promote health education on specific hazards of SHS, provide country-specific evidence on smoking bans and hospitality revenues, and disseminate information that restricting smoking and ventilation alone cannot eliminate SHS hazards.
Collapse
|