1
|
Islam R, Dash D, Singh R. An antioxidant ameliorates allergic airway inflammation by inhibiting HDAC 1 via HIF-1α/VEGF axis suppression in mice. Sci Rep 2023; 13:9637. [PMID: 37316684 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-36678-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are novel class of drugs as they are involved in post translational modification of several proteins involved in signaling pathways related to asthma. HDACi have been reported to elicit protective effects on asthma but the signaling pathways associated with it have not been investigated much. Recently, we have demonstrated that intranasal administrations of Pan-HDAC inhibitors, sodium butyrate and curcumin, which have effectively reduced asthma severity via HDAC1 inhibition in Ovalbumin induced mouse model. Present study aimed to investigate possible pathways by which curcumin and sodium butyrate may minimize asthma pathogenesis via HDAC 1 inhibition. Balb/c mice were exposed (sensitized and challenged) with Ovalbumin to establish allergic asthma model followed by pretreatment of curcumin (5 mg/kg) and sodium butyrate (50 mg/kg) through intranasal route. Effects of curcumin and sodium butyrate on HIF-1α/VEGF signaling through activation of PI3K/Akt axis has been investigated using protein expressions followed by chromatin immunoprecipitation of BCL2 and CCL2 against HDAC1. Molecular docking analysis was also performed to investigate effects of curcumin and butyrate on mucus hypersecretion, goblet cell hyperplasia and airway hyperresponsiveness. Augmented expressions of HDAC-1, HIF-1α, VEGF, p-Akt and p-PI3K were observed in asthmatic group which was suppressed in both the treatments. NRF-2 level was significantly restored by curcumin and butyrate treatments. Protein expressions of p-p38, IL-5 and mRNA expressions of GATA-3 were also reduced in curcumin and butyrate treatment groups. Our findings suggest that curcumin and sodium butyrate may attenuate airway inflammation via down regulation of p-Akt/p-PI3K/HIF-1α/VEGF axis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ramiya Islam
- Department of Zoology, MMV, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - D Dash
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Rashmi Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Qian L, Mehrabi Nasab E, Athari SM, Athari SS. Mitochondria signaling pathways in allergic asthma. J Investig Med 2022; 70:863-882. [PMID: 35168999 PMCID: PMC9016245 DOI: 10.1136/jim-2021-002098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria, as the powerhouse organelle of cells, are greatly involved in regulating cell signaling pathways, including those related to the innate and acquired immune systems, cellular differentiation, growth, death, apoptosis, and autophagy as well as hypoxic stress responses in various diseases. Asthma is a chronic complicated airway disease characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophilic inflammation, mucus hypersecretion, and remodeling of airway. The asthma mortality and morbidity rates have increased worldwide, so understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying asthma progression is necessary for new anti-asthma drug development. The lung is an oxygen-rich organ, and mitochondria, by sensing and processing O2, contribute to the generation of ROS and activation of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. Asthma pathophysiology has been tightly associated with mitochondrial dysfunction leading to reduced ATP synthase activity, increased oxidative stress, apoptosis induction, and abnormal calcium homeostasis. Defects of the mitochondrial play an essential role in the pro-remodeling mechanisms of lung fibrosis and airway cells’ apoptosis. Identification of mitochondrial therapeutic targets can help repair mitochondrial biogenesis and dysfunction and reverse related pathological changes and lung structural remodeling in asthma. Therefore, we here overviewed the relationship between mitochondrial signaling pathways and asthma pathogenic mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ling Qian
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Entezar Mehrabi Nasab
- Department of Cardiology, Tehran Heart Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (the Islamic Republic of)
| | | | - Seyyed Shamsadin Athari
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran (the Islamic Republic of)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tian BP, Li F, Li R, Hu X, Lai TW, Lu J, Zhao Y, Du Y, Liang Z, Zhu C, Shao W, Li W, Chen ZH, Sun X, Chen X, Ying S, Ling D, Shen H. Nanoformulated ABT-199 to effectively target Bcl-2 at mitochondrial membrane alleviates airway inflammation by inducing apoptosis. Biomaterials 2018; 192:429-439. [PMID: 30500724 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Elimination of airway inflammatory cells is essential for asthma control. As Bcl-2 protein is highly expressed on the mitochondrial outer membrane in inflammatory cells, we chose a Bcl-2 inhibitor, ABT-199, which can inhibit airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness by inducing inflammatory cell apoptosis. Herein, we synthesized a pH-sensitive nanoformulated Bcl-2 inhibitor (Nf-ABT-199) that could specifically deliver ABT-199 to the mitochondria of bronchial inflammatory cells. The proof-of-concept study of an inflammatory cell mitochondria-targeted therapy using Nf-ABT-199 was validated in a mouse model of allergic asthma. Nf-ABT-199 was proven to significantly alleviate airway inflammation by effectively inducing eosinophil apoptosis and inhibiting both inflammatory cell infiltration and mucus hypersecretion. In addition, the nanocarrier or Nf-ABT-199 showed no obvious influence on cell viability, airway epithelial barrier and liver function, implying excellent biocompatibility and with non-toxic effect. The nanoformulated Bcl-2 inhibitor Nf-ABT-199 accumulates in the mitochondria of inflammatory cells and efficiently alleviates allergic asthma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bao-Ping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Key Site of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Department of Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China
| | - Fangyuan Li
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China
| | - Ruiqing Li
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China
| | - Xi Hu
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China
| | - Tian-Wen Lai
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Key Site of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China
| | - Jingxiong Lu
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China
| | - Yun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Key Site of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China
| | - Yang Du
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China
| | - Zeyu Liang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China
| | - Chen Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Key Site of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China
| | - Wei Shao
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China
| | - Wen Li
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Key Site of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China
| | - Zhi-Hua Chen
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Key Site of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China
| | - Xiaolian Sun
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Xiaoyuan Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Songmin Ying
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Key Site of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Department of Pharmacology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.
| | - Daishun Ling
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China.
| | - Huahao Shen
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; Key Site of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, China; State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510120, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wang H, Hu W, Liang Z, zeng L, Li J, Yan H, Yang P, Liu Z, Wang L. Thiol peroxiredoxin, a novel allergen from Bombyx mori, modulates functions of macrophages and dendritic cells. Am J Transl Res 2016; 8:5320-5329. [PMID: 28078005 PMCID: PMC5209485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Bombyx mori (B.mori, also known as silkworm) plays a role in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases. However, its allergens are to be characterized. The aim of this paper is to identify new silkworm allergens. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and mass spectrometry were employed to separate and identify potential allergens from silkworm pupa. Six potential allergens were identified in this study. Thiol peroxiredoxin (TP), one of the 6 allergens, reacted to serum IgE from patients sensitized to silkworm. By sensitizing with TP allergic asthma like symptoms were induced in mice, including elevation of the levels of serum IgE, IL-4 from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and culture supernatant of spleen cells. In vitro experiments showed that TP significantly induced RAW264.7 cells (a macrophage cell line) apoptosis via modulating the BCL2 and Caspase9 pathways. The levels of CD80, CD40, CD83 and TNF-α in DC2.4 cells (a dendritic cell line) were increased in the culture after exposure to TP. In summary, TP is an allergic component of silkworm. It induces allergic asthma, and modulates the functions of macrophages and dendritic cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- Otolaryngology Institutes, Allergy and Immunology Research Center, Shenzhen UniversityShenzhen 518060, China
- The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease for Allergy at Shenzhen University, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University3688 Nanhai Blvd, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Wei Hu
- Otolaryngology Institutes, Allergy and Immunology Research Center, Shenzhen UniversityShenzhen 518060, China
| | - Zhiling Liang
- Otolaryngology Institutes, Allergy and Immunology Research Center, Shenzhen UniversityShenzhen 518060, China
| | - Lu zeng
- Otolaryngology Institutes, Allergy and Immunology Research Center, Shenzhen UniversityShenzhen 518060, China
- The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease for Allergy at Shenzhen University, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University3688 Nanhai Blvd, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Jianjie Li
- Otolaryngology Institutes, Allergy and Immunology Research Center, Shenzhen UniversityShenzhen 518060, China
| | - Hao Yan
- Otolaryngology Institutes, Allergy and Immunology Research Center, Shenzhen UniversityShenzhen 518060, China
| | - Pingchang Yang
- Otolaryngology Institutes, Allergy and Immunology Research Center, Shenzhen UniversityShenzhen 518060, China
- The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease for Allergy at Shenzhen University, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University3688 Nanhai Blvd, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Zhigang Liu
- Otolaryngology Institutes, Allergy and Immunology Research Center, Shenzhen UniversityShenzhen 518060, China
- The State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease for Allergy at Shenzhen University, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University3688 Nanhai Blvd, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Lianglu Wang
- Departments of Allergy, Peking Union Medical College HospitalBeijing 100730, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Knolle MD, Nakajima T, Hergrueter A, Gupta K, Polverino F, Craig VJ, Fyfe SE, Zahid M, Permaul P, Cernadas M, Montano G, Tesfaigzi Y, Sholl L, Kobzik L, Israel E, Owen CA. Adam8 limits the development of allergic airway inflammation in mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:6434-49. [PMID: 23670189 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1202329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
To determine whether a disintegrin and metalloproteinase-8 (Adam8) regulates allergic airway inflammation (AAI) and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), we compared AAI and AHR in wild-type (WT) versus Adam8(-/-) mice in different genetic backgrounds sensitized and challenged with OVA or house dust mite protein extract. OVA- and house dust mite-treated Adam8(-/-) mice had higher lung leukocyte counts, more airway mucus metaplasia, greater lung levels of some Th2 cytokines, and higher methacholine-induced increases in central airway resistance than allergen-treated WT mice. Studies of OVA-treated Adam8 bone marrow chimeric mice confirmed that leukocyte-derived Adam8 predominantly mediated Adam8's anti-inflammatory activities in murine airways. Airway eosinophils and macrophages both expressed Adam8 in WT mice with AAI. Adam8 limited AAI and AHR in mice by reducing leukocyte survival because: 1) Adam8(-/-) mice with AAI had fewer apoptotic eosinophils and macrophages in their airways than WT mice with AAI; and 2) Adam8(-/-) macrophages and eosinophils had reduced rates of apoptosis compared with WT leukocytes when the intrinsic (but not the extrinsic) apoptosis pathway was triggered in the cells in vitro. ADAM8 was robustly expressed by airway granulocytes in lung sections from human asthma patients, but, surprisingly, airway macrophages had less ADAM8 staining than airway eosinophils. Thus, ADAM8 has anti-inflammatory activities during AAI in mice by activating the intrinsic apoptosis pathway in myeloid leukocytes. Strategies that increase ADAM8 levels in myeloid leukocytes may have therapeutic efficacy in asthma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin D Knolle
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Resolution of inflammation: mechanisms and opportunity for drug development. Pharmacol Ther 2013; 139:189-212. [PMID: 23583354 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is a beneficial host reaction to tissue damage and has the essential primary purpose of restoring tissue homeostasis. Inflammation plays a major role in containing and resolving infection and may also occur under sterile conditions. The cardinal signs of inflammation dolor, calor, tumor and rubor are intrinsically associated with events including vasodilatation, edema and leukocyte trafficking into the site of inflammation. If uncontrolled or unresolved, inflammation itself can lead to further tissue damage and give rise to chronic inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity with eventual loss of organ function. It is now evident that the resolution of inflammation is an active continuous process that occurs during an acute inflammatory episode. Successful resolution requires activation of endogenous programs with switch from production of pro-inflammatory towards pro-resolving molecules, such as specific lipid mediators and annexin A1, and the non-phlogistic elimination of granulocytes by apoptosis with subsequent removal by surrounding macrophages. These processes ensure rapid restoration of tissue homeostasis. Here, we review recent advances in the understanding of resolution of inflammation, highlighting the pharmacological strategies that may interfere with the molecular pathways which control leukocyte survival and clearance. Such strategies have proved beneficial in several pre-clinical models of inflammatory diseases, suggesting that pharmacological modulation of the resolution process may be useful for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases in humans.
Collapse
|
7
|
Xie J, Li R, Fan R, Meng Z. Effects of sulfur dioxide on expressions of p53, bax and bcl-2 in lungs of asthmatic rats. Inhal Toxicol 2009; 21:952-7. [PMID: 19681733 DOI: 10.1080/08958370802629602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of cell apoptosis is an increasingly important factor in modulating airway inflammation in asthma, which is related to environmental pollutants. To investigate the effects of sulfur dioxide (SO(2)) on the mRNA and protein expressions of apoptosis-related genes in lungs from asthmatic rats, male Wistar rats were challenged by ovalbumin (OVA) or SO(2) (2 ppm) inhalation alone or together. Examinations were performed 24 h after the last treatment. The mRNA and protein levels of p53, bax, and bcl-2 were analyzed in lungs using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay and Western blot analysis, respectively. The results indicated that increases of bcl-2 or decreases of p53 and bax mRNA and protein levels were not significant in lungs of rats exposed to SO(2) alone, compared with controls, but elevated or reduced levels of these genes appeared in lungs of asthmatic rats exposed to SO(2) plus OVA, compared with controls, suggesting that SO(2) exposure could result in OVA-induced increases or decreases of transcription and translation levels of these apoptosis-related genes in rat lungs, and may have relations to airway inflammation in asthma. The regulation mechanism of apoptosis in asthma disease exposure to SO(2) needs further study.
Collapse
|
8
|
Abdulamir AS, Hafidh RR, Abubakar F. Different inflammatory mechanisms in lungs of severe and mild asthma: crosstalk of NF-kappa-B, TGFbeta1, Bax, Bcl-2, IL-4 and IgE. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 2009; 69:487-95. [PMID: 19347746 DOI: 10.1080/00365510902749131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine differences in the apoptotic, inflammatory, allergic and immunological features in the lungs of adults with asthma. MATERIAL AND METHODS Thirty-six patients with mild asthma (MA), 16 with severe asthma (SA) and 20 healthy volunteers (HVs) were enrolled. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was processed into cell-free fluid for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay detecting soluble TGFbeta1, IL-4 and IgE and BALF lymphocytes for immunocytochemical staining of cellular Bax, Bcl-2 and nuclear factor-Kappa-B (NFkappaB). RESULTS Cellular NFkappaB expression was higher in SA than in MA and HVs, while extracellular TGFbeta1 was high in both the SA and MA groups but low in the HVs. Bcl-2/Bax ratio was higher in SA than in MA and in MA than in HV groups and correlated significantly with NFkappaB level. Interestingly, the levels of IgE and, to a lesser extent, IL-4 were higher in MA than in SA and both were much higher than in HVs, and were inversely correlated with NFkappaB level in the SA group and with TGFbeta1 level in the MA group. CONCLUSIONS NFkappaB has a central role in the perpetuation of persistent inflammation in SA and might induce apoptosis via Bcl-2. The SA group appears not associated much with allergen-based IgE and IL-4 reactions as efficiently as in MA. This was supported by the lower levels of IgE and IL-4 in SA compared to MA. TGFbeta1 appears to be associated with asthma pathogenesis, especially allergen-based MA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A S Abdulamir
- Microbiology Research Department, University Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abu-Ghefreh AA, Canatan H, Ezeamuzie CI. In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of andrographolide. Int Immunopharmacol 2008; 9:313-8. [PMID: 19110075 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2008.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2008] [Revised: 11/29/2008] [Accepted: 12/04/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Andrographolide - the major active principle isolated from the plant Andrographis paniculata, has been shown to possess a strong anti-inflammatory activity. The possibility that the drug may affect asthmatic inflammation, through inhibition of the relevant inflammatory cytokines, has not been explored. The purpose of this study was, firstly, to investigate the ability of andrographolide to inhibit the release of inflammatory cytokines in vitro in a model of non-specific inflammation and subsequently to determine whether such effect can also be exerted in vivo in allergic lung inflammation. LPS-induced TNF-alpha and GM-CSF release from mouse peritoneal macrophages was inhibited by andrographolide in a concentration-dependent manner. The concentration of the drug producing 50% inhibition was 0.6 microM for TNF-alpha and 3.3 microM for GM-CSF. The maximal inhibition achieved (at 50 microM) was 77% and 94%, respectively, for the two cytokines. The drug was as efficacious as dexamethasone, but about 8-12 times less potent. The drug also suppressed LPS-induced expression of mRNA for the two cytokines, suggesting that this effect may contribute to the mechanism underlying its anti-inflammatory effects. In the in vivo study, intra-peritoneal treatment of ovalbumin-immunized and nasally-challenged mice with andrographolide significantly inhibited the elevation of bronchoalveolar fluid (BAF) levels of TNF-alpha and GM-CSF in a dose-dependent manner, with 30 mg/kg producing an inhibition of 92% and 65% of the cytokines, respectively) and almost completely abolishing the accumulation of lymphocytes and eosinophils. These results provide evidence that andrographolide is an effective anti-inflammatory drug that is active in vitro and in vivo, and affects both non-specific as well as antigen/antibody-dependent lung inflammation. Thus, andrographolide has the potential to be used in a variety of inflammatory conditions, including allergic lung inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ala'a A Abu-Ghefreh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Kuwait University, Kuwait
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abdulamir AS, Hafidh RR, Abubakar F, Abbas KA. Changing survival, memory cell compartment, and T-helper balance of lymphocytes between severe and mild asthma. BMC Immunol 2008; 9:73. [PMID: 19087256 PMCID: PMC2631545 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-9-73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2008] [Accepted: 12/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Asthma is a complicated network of inflammatory reactions. It is classified into mild, moderate, and severe persistent asthma. The success of asthma therapy relies much on understanding the underlying mechanisms of inflammation at each stage of asthma severity. The aim of this study was to explore the differences in apoptotic potential, CD4/CD8 ratio, memory compartment, and T- helper (Th) 1 and 2 profile of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) in patients with mild intermittent asthma and severe persistent asthma during exacerbation periods. Results Four research lines were investigated and compared among mild asthmatics, severe asthmatics, and healthy groups by applying immunocytochemical staining of PBL. Antiapoptotic and proapoptotic proteins with Bcl-2/Bax ratio, CD4, CD8 markers with CD4+/CD8+ ratio, CD45RO+, CD45RA+ markers with memory/naïve ratio (CD45RO+/CD45RA+). Th2/Th1 cytokines balance represented by IL-4/IFN-γ ratio was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for in vitro PBL cytokine synthesis. It was found that Bcl-2/Bax ratio was higher in severe than in mild asthmatics which in turn was higher than in healthy group. And memory/naïve ratio of PBL was higher in severe than in mild asthmatics. Moreover, memory cells, CD45RO+ and CD45RO+/CD45RA+ ratio were correlated directly with Bcl-2/Bax, in severe and mild asthma patients. In contrast, CD4+/CD8+ ratio was not changed significantly among healthy group, mild and severe asthmatics. However, CD8+ cells were correlated directly with memory cells, CD45RO+, in severe asthmatics only. Interestingly, the dominant profile of cytokines appeared to change from T helper 2 (Th2) in mild asthmatics to T helper 1 (Th1) in severe asthmatics where the lowest in vitro IL-4/IFN-γ ratio and highest IFN-γ were found. Conclusion It was concluded that the underlying mechanisms of inflammation might vary greatly with asthma stage of severity. Mild intermittent asthma is mainly Th2 allergen-oriented reaction during exacerbations with good level of apoptosis making the inflammation as self-limiting, while in severe persistent asthma, the inflammatory reaction mediated mainly by Th1 cytokines with progressive loss of apoptosis leading to longer exacerbations, largely expanded memory cells, CD45RO+, leading to persistent baseline inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A S Abdulamir
- Microbiology Research Department, University Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Differential rates of apoptosis and recruitment limit eosinophil accumulation in the lungs of asthma-resistant CBA/Ca mice. Mol Immunol 2008; 45:3609-17. [PMID: 18582944 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2008.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2008] [Revised: 05/06/2008] [Accepted: 05/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The accumulation of eosinophils is a common feature of allergic airway inflammation and correlates with disease severity. In an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced murine model of allergic lung disease, CBA/Ca mice develop much lower levels of lung eosinophilia, lung oedema, mucus hypersecretion and airways obstruction than BALB/c and C57BL/6 strains. In this study these strains have been examined to identify mechanisms that control the recruitment and survival of eosinophils in the allergic lung. Following immunization with OVA, CBA/Ca mice developed a robust systemic allergic response, with high levels of total and OVA-specific IgE and increases in peripheral blood eosinophils. Lung eotaxin-1 levels and expression of CD18 on eosinophils recovered by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) were least pronounced in CBA/Ca mice, whereas mRNA for L-selectin was highest in eosinophils from C57BL/6 mice. Apoptosis of BAL eosinophils ex vivo was most pronounced in the CBA/Ca strain. BALB/c mice expressed the highest levels of the eosinophil growth and survival factor interleukin (IL)-5 in the lungs and BAL eosinophils from these animals expressed more of the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-xL and Bcl-2 than cells from the other strains. A combination of lower levels of recruitment and rapid apoptosis may therefore limit the accumulation of eosinophils and pathology in the lungs of CBA/Ca mice. In addition, although the level of pathology that developed in C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice was similar, some of the underlying mechanisms are likely to differ.
Collapse
|
12
|
Bianchi SM, Dockrell DH, Renshaw SA, Sabroe I, Whyte MKB. Granulocyte apoptosis in the pathogenesis and resolution of lung disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 2006; 110:293-304. [PMID: 16464171 DOI: 10.1042/cs20050178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Apoptosis, programmed cell death, of neutrophil and eosinophil granulocytes is a potential control point in the physiological resolution of innate immune responses. There is also increasing evidence that cellular processes of apoptosis can be dysregulated by pathogens as a mechanism of immune evasion and that delayed apoptosis, resulting in prolonged inflammatory cell survival, is important in persistence of tissue inflammation. The identification of cell-type specific pathways to apoptosis may allow the design of novel anti-inflammatory therapies or agents to augment the innate immune responses to infection. This review will explore the physiological roles of granulocyte apoptosis and their importance in infectious and non-infectious lung disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Bianchi
- Academic Unit of Respiratory Medicine, Division of Genomic Medicine, University of Sheffield, M Floor, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield S10 2JF, U.K
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Lacy P, Lee JL, Vethanayagam D. Sputum analysis in diagnosis and management of obstructive airway diseases. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2005; 1:169-79. [PMID: 18360557 PMCID: PMC1661627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced sputum analysis has recently emerged as a potential new clinical tool in the diagnosis and management of obstructive airway diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and other disorders including bronchiectasis. Its safety has been demonstrated in numerous studies, and its efficacy is superior to previous techniques for determining airway inflammation. It is a noninvasive and highly reproducible approach in generating a measurable index of inflammatory cells in the airways of the lungs. Recent studies have shown that exacerbations, particularly in patients with moderate to severe asthma, can be reduced by routine analysis of induced sputum samples. We now have the ability to clinically apply sputum measurements to manage asthmatics. Inflammatory markers and cell types in induced sputum can also be investigated using newer technologies with more sensitive qualitative and quantitative features than basic cellular analysis. This review outlines the procedure for sputum induction, characterizes inflammatory cell types in the sputum, and addresses recent advances in the field of sputum analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paige Lacy
- Pulmonary Research Group, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
El-Gamal Y, Heshmat N, Mahran M, El-Gabbas Z. Expression of the apoptosis inhibitor Bcl-2 in sputum eosinophils from children with acute asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2005; 34:1701-6. [PMID: 15544593 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2004.02089.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apoptosis of eosinophils is of increasingly important value in modulating allergic airway inflammation in asthma. Our purpose was to investigate the degree of expression of the antiapoptotic B-cell lymphoma/leukaemia-2 (Bcl-2) protein in sputum eosinophils during acute asthma exacerbation and its relationship with exacerbation severity. METHODS Sputum was obtained from 33 asthmatic children and 15 healthy children as a control group. Patients were studied during an acute asthma exacerbation. They were classified according to the severity of exacerbation into mild, moderate and severe (n=11 for each). Patients with severe exacerbation were followed up until remission and another sputum sample was obtained. Number of sputum eosinophils was expressed as percentage of leucocytes. Bcl-2 expression in sputum eosinophils was assessed by immunohistochemical staining techniques; the results were expressed as percentage of positively stained cells over total eosinophils. RESULTS Sputum eosinophils and Bcl-2(+) eosinophils' percentages were significantly higher in patients with acute exacerbation than controls (P<0.01). Patients with severe exacerbation had significantly higher sputum Bcl-2(+) eosinophils' percentage than those with mild-to-moderate exacerbation (mean+/-SD=42.4+/-31.96% vs. 5.7+/-14.5%, P<0.01). A significant negative correlation was found between Bcl-2(+) eosinophils' percentage and peak expiratory flow rate % predicted (P<0.05). After remission, patients with severe exacerbation showed a significant decrease of Bcl-2(+) eosinophils' percentage (P<0.05). CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that Bcl-2 prolongs survival and decreases apoptosis of airway eosinophils in asthma especially during exacerbation. Eosinophil apoptosis and Bcl-2 represent a target for new and effective therapeutic strategies of asthma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y El-Gamal
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abadoglu O, Mungan D, Aksu O, Erekul S, Misirligil Z. The effect of montelukast on eosinophil apoptosis: induced sputum findings of patients with mild persistent asthma. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2005; 33:105-11. [PMID: 15808118 DOI: 10.1157/13072922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apoptosis may be important in limiting airway eosinophilia. Treatment with leukotriene antagonists decreases the number of eosinophils in both peripheral blood and sputum. AIM To assess the effect of montelukast on eosinophil apoptosis in a group of patients with mild persistent asthma (MPA) and to compare this effect with the apoptotic effect of fluticasone propionate (FP). METHODS Randomly selected patients with MPA (n = 22) who had not taken anti-inflammatory therapy within the preceding 12 months were included in the study. The sputum induction procedure was performed and the patients were divided into two groups: group 1 (n = 10) received FP 250 microg/day and group 2 (n = 22) received montelukast 10 mg/day orally for 4 weeks. Sputum induction was repeated after the treatment period. The resulting cytospin slides were stained by Wright's stain and morphologic changes in apoptotic eosinophils were assessed by the use of light microscopy by two blinded expert pathologists. Serum soluble Fas ligand (sFasL) concentrations were measured by an ELISA method at baseline and after treatment in both groups, as well as in a group of healthy subjects. RESULTS In within-group comparisons, the apoptotic ratio (AR) increased at the end of the study period in group 1 (p = 0.05). In the group treated with FP the ratio of sputum eosinophils significantly decreased (p = 0.02), and the AR significantly increased (p < 0.005). No differences were found in the two study groups in serum sFasL levels at the end of the treatment period compared with baseline values (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION Our findings demonstrate that 4 weeks' treatment with a CysLT receptor antagonist (montelukast) resulted in an increase in eosinophil apoptosis comparable to that produced by FP, suggesting that induction of apoptosis may be a potential mechanism for the mode of action of CysLT receptor antagonists in asthma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- O Abadoglu
- Department of Chest Diseases, Division of Allergy, Ankara University School of Medicine, Cebeci Hospital, Civas, Ankara, Turkey.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Ogawa K, Hashida R, Miyagawa M, Kagaya S, Sugita Y, Matsumoto K, Katsunuma T, Akasawa A, Tsujimoto G, Saito H. Analysis of gene expression in peripheral blood eosinophils from patients with atopic dermatitis and in vitro cytokine-stimulated blood eosinophils. Clin Exp Immunol 2003; 131:436-45. [PMID: 12605696 PMCID: PMC1808659 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2003.02090.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigation of differentially expressed genes in eosinophils of patients with allergic diseases such as atopic dermatitis (AD) will provide important information for elucidating possible mechanisms of pathology. To identify novel genes that are expressed in AD, we compared gene expression in samples of peripheral blood eosinophils from AD patients and healthy volunteers. RNA was extracted from peripheral blood eosinophils. The expression of various genes, such as those for cytokine receptors, eosinophil activation marker, platelet activating factor (PAF) receptor, eosinophil-specific granular proteins and apoptosis-related genes, was confirmed using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Peripheral blood eosinophils of healthy volunteers were also isolated and stimulated for introduction of various cytokines. RNA was extracted and gene expression was monitored. Several genes, such as those for cytokine receptors (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) receptor alpha and beta chain and interleukin (IL)-3 receptor alpha chain), CD44 and PAF receptor were expressed at significantly higher levels in AD patients than in healthy volunteers. In addition, the anti-apoptotic genes, bcl-2 and bcl-xL, were expressed at increased levels in AD patients. No single gene expression correlated with clinical markers, such as eosinophil count or IgE levels. Expression of GM-CSF receptor beta chain and IL-3 receptor alpha chain in isolated blood eosinophils of healthy volunteers was stimulated by IL-5, IL-4, interferon (IFN)-gamma and GM-CSF. Expression of bcl-2 and bcl-xL was also increased after stimulation with IL-5, IL-4 or IFN-gamma. The in vitro enhancement of cytokine-stimulated gene expression correlated well with the enhancement observed in clinical samples of eosinophils, suggesting that cytokines may affect gene expression in vivo in eosinophils of patients with AD.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Cells, Cultured
- Child
- Child, Preschool
- Cytokines/immunology
- Dermatitis, Atopic/immunology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Immunologic
- Eosinophils/immunology
- Female
- Gene Expression/immunology
- Humans
- Hyaluronan Receptors/biosynthesis
- Hyaluronan Receptors/genetics
- Infant
- Infant, Newborn
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Multivariate Analysis
- Platelet Membrane Glycoproteins/biosynthesis
- Platelet Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Receptors, Cell Surface/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled
- Receptors, Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-3/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Interleukin-3/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Severity of Illness Index
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Ogawa
- Genox Research Inc., Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ho CY, Wong CK, Ko FWS, Chan CHS, Ho ASS, Hui DSC, Lam CWK. Apoptosis and B-cell lymphoma-2 of peripheral blood T lymphocytes and soluble fas in patients with allergic asthma. Chest 2002; 122:1751-8. [PMID: 12426281 DOI: 10.1378/chest.122.5.1751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVE s: The dysregulation of apoptosis and the expression of apoptosis-related molecules of allergen-reactive T lymphocytes have been suggested to play a key role in the development and maintenance of the inflammatory reactions in allergic asthma. Glucocorticoids are effective drugs for treating allergic inflammation. In this study, we investigated the effect of dexamethasone (DEX) on the apoptosis and B-cell lymphoma (Bcl)-2 expression of peripheral blood T lymphocytes as well as the soluble form of Fas (sFas) in allergic asthmatic patients. METHODS Peripheral blood lymphocytes from 41 allergic asthmatic patients and 30 age-matched and sex-matched control subjects were treated with 0.1 and 1 micro M DEX. The percentages of apoptosis and expression of the Bcl-2 molecule in T lymphocytes were assessed by flow cytometry. The plasma concentration of sFas was measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS DEX (0.1 and 1 micro M) could induce the apoptosis of T lymphocytes from allergic asthmatic patients and control subjects in a dose-dependent manner in vitro. The apoptotic susceptibility of T lymphocytes to DEX and the plasma sFas concentration were significantly higher in allergic asthmatics. The ex vivo expression of Bcl-2 was significantly lower in the T lymphocytes of asthmatic patients than in those of the control subjects. However, DEX did not have any significant effect on the expression of Bcl-2 in vitro. CONCLUSIONS The T lymphocytes of asthmatic patients have higher apoptotic susceptibility to DEX treatment in vitro and a lower expression of the Bcl-2 molecule.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheong-Yip Ho
- Departments of Chemical Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Dewson G, Cohen GM, Wardlaw AJ. Interleukin-5 inhibits translocation of Bax to the mitochondria, cytochrome c release, and activation of caspases in human eosinophils. Blood 2001; 98:2239-47. [PMID: 11568012 DOI: 10.1182/blood.v98.7.2239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The apoptosis and subsequent clearance of eosinophils without histotoxic mediator release is thought to be crucial in the resolution of airway inflammation in asthma. Interleukin-5 (IL-5) is a potent suppressor of eosinophil apoptosis. The mechanism by which IL-5 inhibits spontaneous eosinophil apoptosis was investigated. Freshly isolated eosinophils constitutively expressed the conformationally active form of Bax in the cytosol and nucleus. During spontaneous and staurosporine-induced apoptosis, Bax underwent a caspase-independent translocation to the mitochondria, which was inhibited by IL-5. Eosinophil apoptosis was associated with the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria, which was also inhibited by IL-5. IL-5 and the cell-permeable caspase inhibitor, benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-(OMe) fluoromethyl ketone (z-VAD.fmk), prevented phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization, although only IL-5 inhibited loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsim). Peripheral blood eosinophils endogenously expressed "initiator" caspase-8 and -9, and "effector" caspase-3, -6, and -7. Spontaneous eosinophil apoptosis was associated with processing of caspase-3, -6, -7, -8, and -9. IL-5 and z-VAD.fmk prevented caspase activation in spontaneous apoptosis. The results suggest that spontaneous eosinophil apoptosis involves Bax translocation to the mitochondria, cytochrome c release, caspase-independent perturbation of the mitochondrial membrane, and subsequent activation of caspases. IL-5 inhibits spontaneous eosinophil apoptosis at a site upstream of Bax translocation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Dewson
- Institute for Lung Health, University of Leicester, Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | | | | |
Collapse
|