Unusual case of metabolic bone disease in a common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

Hydrotherapy in two black-tufted marmosets (Callithrix penicillata) with metabolic bone disease-Case reports (2018-2020)

Integrative medicine has gained space in veterinary medicine and hydrotherapy is mainly used as an adjunct on the treatment of neurological and musculoskeletal diseases. Use of this therapeutic modality in wild animals has seldom been reported. This article describes the use of hydrotherapy in two Callithrix penicillata patients with metabolic bone disease.

Endocrine Diagnostics for Exotic Animals

Endocrine disease in exotic species is less common than in small animals. Nevertheless, the diagnostic principles used in small animals can be adapted to evaluate endocrine disease in many of the exotic species although species-specific aspects need to be considered. This article covers important diseases such as thyroid dysfunction in reptiles and birds, hyperthyroidism in guinea pigs, and hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets. Glucose metabolism in neoplasms affecting normal physiology, such as insulinoma in ferrets and gastric neuroendocrine carcinoma in bearded dragons, is discussed. Calcium abnormalities, including metabolic bone disease in reptiles and hypocalcemia in birds, are also covered.

Investigating factors of metabolic bone disease in baboons (Papio spp.) using museum collections

OBJECTIVES

To assess manifestations of metabolic bone disease (MBD) and their potential environmental and phenotypic factors in captive and non-captive baboon (Papio spp.) specimens.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Our sample consisted of 160 baboon specimens at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History accessioned from 1890 to 1971. Combining cranial indicators of MBD and the museum's historical data, we examined factors contributing to likely instances of MBD. We used binomial-family generalized linear models to assess differences in MBD frequency by environment (captive, non-captive), specimen accession year, and skin color (light, medium, dark).

RESULTS

Indicators of MBD were most frequently observed in captive baboons, with a decrease in MBD frequency over time. Fifteen non-captive individuals showed indicators of MBD, which are the first published cases of MBD in non-captive nonhuman primates (NHPs) to our knowledge. The most common MBD indicators were bone porosity (n = 35) and bone thickening/enlargement (n = 35). Fibrous osteodystrophy was observed frequently in our sample, likely relating to nutritional deficiencies. We found no association between exposed facial skin color variation and MBD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings are consistent with historical accounts of MBD prevalence in captive facilities, especially earlier in the 20th century. A decrease in MBD prevalence later in the 20th century likely reflects improvements in housing, diet, and veterinary care in captive settings. Causes of MBD development in non-captive baboons should be further explored, as understanding the potential health impacts that anthropogenic environments impose on NHPs is imperative as humans increasingly alter the natural world in the 21st century.

Naturally Occurring Endocrine Disorders in Non-Human Primates: A Comprehensive Review

Simple Summary

Nonhuman primates (NHP) can become ill due to a variety of diseases and disorders, yet endocrine disorders remain underreported. Therefore, an exhaustive literature search on this subject via widely used academic search systems, peer-reviewed publications, proceedings, and newsletters was performed. Selected major endocrine entities will be described emphasizing clinical signs, morphologic features, concomitant diseases, as well as available treatment options. In most cases, no clinical signs were noted and on gross pathology, the endocrine organs were unremarkable. The diagnosis was frequently made as incidental findings after standard histological examination. Although the findings were frequently incidental many have the potential to impact studies. This review explains that there is no standard procedure for diagnosing, monitoring, or treating endocrine disorders in NHP. More research is needed to evaluate these procedures and establish risk factors.

Abstract

Literature concerning veterinary medicine of non-human primates is continuously updated, yet endocrine disorders remain underreported. While case or survey reports of individual endocrinopathies are available, a comprehensive review is not. An exhaustive literature search on this subject via widely used academic search systems, (e.g., Google Scholar, PubMed, BioOne complete and Web of Science), and peer-reviewed publications, proceedings, and newsletters was performed. Selected major endocrine entities will be described with emphasis on clinical signs, morphologic appearances, concomitant diseases, as well as available treatment options. Mostly, no clinical signs were noted and on gross pathology, the endocrine organs were unremarkable. An endocrine-related diagnosis was frequently made as an incidental finding after standard histopathological examination. During the review, the pancreas represented the most affected endocrine organ and diabetes mellitus represented the most clinically significant disorder. Currently, no standard procedure for diagnosing, monitoring, or treating endocrine disorders in non-human primates exists.

Fibrous Osteodystrophy, Chronic Renal Disease, and Uterine Adenocarcinoma in Aged Gray Mouse Lemurs (Microcebus murinus)

The gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus, GML) is a nocturnal, arboreal, prosimian primate that is native to Madagascar. Captive breeding colonies of GMLs have been established primarily for noninvasive studies on questions related to circadian rhythms and metabolism. GMLs are increasingly considered to be a strong translational model for neurocognitive aging due to overlapping histopathologic features shared with aged humans. However, little information is available describing the clinical presentations, naturally occurring diseases, and histopathology of aged GMLs. In our colony, a 9 y-old, male, GML was euthanized after sudden onset of weakness, lethargy, and tibial fracture. Evaluation of this animal revealed widespread fibrous osteodystrophy (FOD) of the mandible, maxilla, cranium, appendicular, and vertebral bones. FOD and systemic metastatic mineralization were attributed to underlying chronic renal disease. Findings in this GML prompted periodic colony-wide serum biochemical screenings for azotemia and electrolyte abnormalities. Subsequently, 3 additional GMLs (2 females and 1 male) were euthanized due to varying clinical and serum biochemical presentations. Common to all 4 animals were FOD, chronic renal disease, uterine adenocarcinoma (females only), cataracts, and osteoarthritis. This case study highlights the concurrent clinical and histopathologic abnormalities that are relevant to use of GMLs in the expanding field of aging research.

Current practices in nutrition management and disease incidence of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)

BACKGROUND

A survey was developed to characterize disease incidence, common pathology lesions, environmental characteristics, and nutrition programs within captive research marmoset colonies.

METHODS

Seventeen research facilities completed the electronic survey.

RESULTS

Nutritional management programs varied amongst research institutions housing marmosets; eight primary base diets were reported. The most common clinical syndromes reported were gastrointestinal disease (i.e. inflammatory bowel disease like disease, chronic lymphocytic enteritis, chronic malabsorption, chronic diarrhea), metabolic bone disease or fracture, infectious diarrhea, and oral disease (tooth root abscesses, gingivitis, tooth root resorption). The five most common pathology morphologic diagnoses were colitis, nephropathy/nephritis, enteritis, chronic lymphoplasmacytic enteritis, and cholecystitis. Obesity was more common (average 20% of a reporting institution's population) than thin body condition (average 5%).

CONCLUSIONS

Through review of current practices, we aim to inspire development of evidence-based practices to standardize husbandry and nutrition practices for marmoset research colonies.

Evaluation of vitamin D3 metabolites in Callithrix jacchus (common marmoset)

Vitamin D₃ (cholecalciferol) is endogenously produced in the skin of primates when exposed to the appropriate wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV-B). Common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) maintained indoors require dietary provision of vitamin D₃ due to lack of sunlight exposure. The minimum dietary vitamin D₃ requirement and the maximum amount of vitamin D₃ that can be metabolized by marmosets is unknown. Observations of metabolic bone disease and gastrointestinal malabsorption have led to wide variation in dietary vitamin D₃ provision amongst research institutions, with resulting variation in circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ (25(OH)D₃ ), the accepted marker for vitamin D sufficiency/deficiency. Multiple studies have reported serum 25(OH)D₃ in captive marmosets, but 25(OH)D₃ is not the final product of vitamin D₃ metabolism. In addition to serum 25(OH)D_3, we measured the most physiologically active metabolite, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (1,25(OH)₂ D₃ ), and the less well understood metabolite, 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (24,25(OH)₂ D₃ ) to characterize the marmoset's ability to metabolize dietary vitamin D₃ . We present vitamin D₃ metabolite and related serum chemistry value colony reference ranges in marmosets provided diets with 26,367 (Colony A, N = 113) or 8,888 (Colony B, N = 52) international units (IU) of dietary vitamin D₃ per kilogram of dry matter. Colony A marmosets had higher serum 25(OH)D₃ (426 ng/ml [SD 200] vs. 215 ng/ml [SD 113]) and 24,25(OH)₂ D₃ (53 ng/ml [SD 35] vs. 7 ng/ml [SD 5]). There was no difference in serum 1,25(OH)₂ D₃ between the colonies. Serum 1,25(OH)₂ D₃ increased and 25(OH)D₃ decreased with age, but the effect was weak. Marmosets tightly regulate metabolism of dietary vitamin D₃ into the active metabolite 1,25(OH)₂ D₃ ; excess 25(OH)D₃ is metabolized into 24,25(OH)₂ D₃ . This ability explains the tolerance of high levels of dietary vitamin D₃ by marmosets, however, our data suggest that these high dietary levels are not required.

Radiographic evaluation of the forelimbs and hind limbs of marmosets (Callithrix spp.)

BACKGROUND

The maintenance of marmosets in captivity may trigger various disorders. The objective of this study was to provide a radiographic evaluation of the forelimbs and hind limbs of marmosets rescued from illegal wildlife trade and maintained in captivity.

METHODS

Fourteen marmosets were studied.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Three marmosets were apparently normal. Of the eleven marmosets with radiographic changes in the hind limbs, five had pelvic narrowing and bilateral varus deviation of the femur, with one suggestive of rickets and another of osteomalacia. The other marmosets showed changes such as malunion of acetabular fracture, transtibial amputation, tibial antecurvatum, and knee osteoarthritis. Six marmosets showed alterations in the forelimbs such as radius fracture, scapulohumeral subluxation, and elbow joint incongruence. In conclusion, 78.57% of the marmosets had bone and/or joint changes detected by plain radiography, which were found predominantly in the hind limbs and without impediment to locomotion in captivity.

SUMMER AND WINTER VITAMIN D3 LEVELS IN SEVEN PLATYRRHINE SPECIES HOUSED AT A BRITISH ZOO, WITH REFERENCE TO NATURAL UVB LEVELS

Serum samples were collected from 24 platyrrhines of seven diurnal species housed with outdoor access at Bristol Zoo Gardens (United Kingdom) to test 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ (25OHD₃) levels as part of the veterinary department's preventative health care program. Samples were collected in August 2008 (summer) and January 2009 (winter) to examine the effect of season on 25OHD₃ levels. Dietary levels of vitamin D₃ remained the same throughout the study period and fell within the range of 2000-4000 IU/kg dry matter, in accordance with current primate guidelines. Statistical analysis showed that there was no significant difference between the platyrrhines' summer 25OHD₃ values (range, <4.0->150.0 μg/L) and winter 25OHD₃ values (range, <4.0-80.1 μg/L). However, ultraviolet B (UVB) measurements taken at the zoo during the study period confirmed that UVB levels were significantly higher in summer (mean reading for 1200-1300 hours GMT time period, 153.8 μW/cm²) compared with winter (mean reading for 1200-1300 hours GMT time period, 19.4 μW/cm²). The 25OHD₃ levels measured were generally found to be low compared with previously published values from healthy captive and wild platyrrhines.

Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism in two ponies

Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSH) is uncommon in horses. Aim of this report is evaluate an alternative therapeutic approach and provide more information on the diagnostic procedures, through detailed microscopic findings of the bone lesions pony with NSH. Administration of tiludronate along with a balanced diet can be used in a treatment protocol for ponies with NSH. This case report suggests that tiludronate can be used to ameliorate the clinical signs of NSH.

An Unusual Case of Generalized Soft-Tissue Mineralization in a Suckling Foal

An atypical case of severe soft-tissue mineralization in a 3-week-old foal from a herd of Andalusian horses is described. The herd clinical history and the laboratory findings were compatible with a diagnosis of secondary hyperparathyroidism due to a mineral imbalance in the diet (low calcium and high phosphorus intake). Mares showed a marked increase in serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) approximately 10 times normal levels. Serum PTH was marginally elevated in foals. Clinical signs (unthriftiness, painful joints, lameness in one or more limbs, and stiff gait) were more pronounced in foals than in mares. Two foals died and necropsy of one of them revealed extensive soft-tissue mineralization of arterial walls and pulmonary parenchyma. Clinical signs in mares and foals resolved by 4 weeks after diet adjustment.

SUMMER AND WINTER VITAMIN D3 LEVELS IN FOUR LEMUR SPECIES HOUSED AT A BRITISH ZOO, WITH REFERENCE TO UVB LEVELS

Serum samples were collected from 18 lemurs of four diurnal/cathemeral species housed with outdoor access at Bristol Zoo Gardens (United Kingdom) to test 25-hydroxy-vitamin D3 (25OHD3) levels as part of the veterinary department's preventative health care program. Samples were collected from each lemur in August 2008 (summer) and January 2009 (winter) to examine the effect of season on 25OHD3 levels. The lemurs were fed commercial primate food and a range of fruit and vegetables, and dietary levels of vitamin D3 remained the same throughout the study period. Statistical analysis showed that the lemurs' summer 25OHD3 values (range 26.7 to >150.0 μg/L) were significantly higher than their winter 25OHD3 values (range 11.4-87.1 μg/L). UVB measurements taken during the study period confirmed that UVB levels were significantly higher in summer (mean reading for 1200-1300 GMT time period 153.8 μW/cm2) compared to winter (mean reading for 1200-1300 GMT time period 19.4 μW/cm2). The 25OHD3 levels measured were generally found to be high compared to previously published values from wild (free-ranging) lemurs in Madagascar. The most likely explanation for this was the higher vitamin D3 content of the captive lemurs' diet, as UVB levels at the zoo (latitude 51° north) are substantially lower than those that occur in Madagascar (latitude 12°-26° south). No evidence of vitamin D toxicity or deficiency was found in any of the captive lemurs. The results indicate that vitamin D3 levels in lemurs housed with outdoor access in the United Kingdom and by extension, other regions of similar latitude, vary with seasonal environmental UVB levels, in a similar way to the seasonal variations in vitamin D3 observed in humans living in these regions, but that vitamin D levels in this captive lemur population were adequate compared to wild lemur levels, even in winter.

Bone Disease in the Common Marmoset: Radiographic and Histological Findings

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is a New World primate that is used in biomedical research due to its small size and relative ease of handling compared with larger primates. Although bone disease in common marmosets is well recognized, there are very few detailed descriptions in the literature that cover the range of lesions seen in these animals. For all animals used to model human disease, it is important to be aware of background lesions that may affect the interpretation of study findings. This retrospective study details bone diseases encountered in marmoset breeding colonies at 2 different institutions. Affected marmosets at Johns Hopkins University had lesions compatible with diagnoses of rickets, fibrous osteodystrophy and osteopenia. Affected marmosets at the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center exhibited severe lesions of osteoclastic bone resorption and remodeling that had an unusual distribution and were not easily categorized into a known disease entity. The purpose of this report is to document these naturally occurring skeletal lesions of common marmosets and suggest an approach to evaluating skeletal disease in prospective studies of these animals that will allow the most accurate diagnoses.

Serum albumin and body weight as biomarkers for the antemortem identification of bone and gastrointestinal disease in the common marmoset

The increasing use of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) in research makes it important to diagnose spontaneous disease that may confound experimental studies. Bone disease and gastrointestinal disease are two major causes of morbidity and mortality in captive marmosets, but currently no effective antemortem tests are available to identify affected animals prior to the terminal stage of disease. In this study we propose that bone disease and gastrointestinal disease are associated disease entities in marmosets and aim to establish the efficacy of several economical antemortem tests in identifying and predicting disease. Tissues from marmosets were examined to define affected animals and unaffected controls. Complete blood count, serum chemistry values, body weight, quantitative radiographs, and tissue-specific biochemical markers were evaluated as candidate biomarkers for disease. Bone and gastrointestinal disease were associated, with marmosets being over seven times more likely to have either concurrent bone and gastrointestinal disease or neither disease as opposed to lesions in only one organ system. When used in tandem, serum albumin <3.5 g/dL and body weight <325 g identified 100% of the marmosets affected with concurrent bone and gastrointestinal disease. Progressive body weight loss of 0.05% of peak body weight per day predicted which marmosets would develop disease prior to the terminal stage. Bone tissue-specific tests, such as quantitative analysis of radiographs and serum parathyroid hormone levels, were effective for distinguishing between marmosets with bone disease and those without. These results provide an avenue for making informed decisions regarding the removal of affected marmosets from studies in a timely manner, preserving the integrity of research results.

Metabolic bone disease in juvenile koalas (Phascolartcos cinereus)

Due to climate restrictions in parts of North America and Europe, koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are housed indoors. Koala young (joeys) raised indoors are susceptible to the development of metabolic bone disease (MBD) due to a lack of exposure to natural ultraviolet light to themselves and their female parents (dams). In this retrospective study, radiographs from 27 koala joeys born at four zoos in North America and two zoos in Europe were evaluated for signs of MBD. Eight of the joeys were radiographically diagnosed with MBD and four additional joeys were considered suspect MBD cases; in two joeys absence or presence of MBD could not be determined. All joeys had mild to severe hip and shoulder dysplasia. There were significant associations between a lack of exposure to UV light and MBD development and between MBD and the degree of severity of hip and shoulder dysplasia. It is recommended to house breeding female koalas and their joeys outdoors whenever possible.

Digestive efficiency mediated by serum calcium predicts bone mineral density in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

Two health problems have plagued captive common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) colonies for nearly as long as those colonies have existed: marmoset wasting syndrome and metabolic bone disease. While marmoset wasting syndrome is explicitly linked to nutrient malabsorption, we propose metabolic bone disease is also linked to nutrient malabsorption, although indirectly. If animals experience negative nutrient balance chronically, critical nutrients may be taken from mineral stores such as the skeleton, thus leaving those stores depleted. We indirectly tested this prediction through an initial investigation of digestive efficiency, as measured by apparent energy digestibility, and serum parameters known to play a part in metabolic bone mineral density of captive common marmoset monkeys. In our initial study on 12 clinically healthy animals, we found a wide range of digestive efficiencies, and subjects with lower digestive efficiency had lower serum vitamin D despite having higher food intakes. A second experiment on 23 subjects including several with suspected bone disease was undertaken to measure digestive and serum parameters, with the addition of a measure of bone mineral density by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). Bone mineral density was positively associated with apparent digestibility of energy, vitamin D, and serum calcium. Further, digestive efficiency was found to predict bone mineral density when mediated by serum calcium. These data indicate that a poor ability to digest and absorb nutrients leads to calcium and vitamin D insufficiency. Vitamin D absorption may be particularly critical for indoor-housed animals, as opposed to animals in a more natural setting, because vitamin D that would otherwise be synthesized via exposure to sunlight must be absorbed from their diet. If malabsorption persists, metabolic bone disease is a possible consequence in common marmosets. These findings support our hypothesis that both wasting syndrome and metabolic bone disease in captive common marmosets are consequences of inefficient nutrient absorption.

Unusual Case of Osteopenia Associated With Nutritional Calcium and Vitamin D Deficiency in an Adult Dog

A 6-year-old, spayed female rottweiler was presented for facial enlargement from swelling of the maxilla and mandible. The dog was fed a homemade diet deficient in calcium and vitamin D, suggesting that rubber jaw syndrome was a secondary nutritional disorder. Radiographic and tomodensitometric examinations revealed diffuse bone resorption in the skull. The plasma parathormone concentration was high, and serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol concentration was low. Based on these findings, nutritional calcium and vitamin D deficiency associated with secondary hyperparathyroidism was diagnosed. Dietary correction resulted in clinical and biological improvement, with an increase in skull mineralization.

Radiographic anatomy of the thorax and abdomen of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

A standard radiographic procedure was developed for the thorax and abdomen in the common marmoset. A description and reference values for the corresponding radiographic anatomy are given. Radiographs were obtained from 17 anaesthetized healthy mature marmosets ranging from 1.5 to 9 years and 328 to 506 g. Left-to-right lateral recumbent and ventrodorsal whole-body radiographs made at end inspiration are recommended. Images of the heart, lungs, liver, gastric axis, and at least one kidney could be evaluated consistently. A generalized interstitial/peribronchial pattern was normally present. The mean of the vertebral heart size +/- SD on dorsoventral or ventrodorsal views was 9.42 (+/- 0.44), ranging from 8.8 to 10.6. Abdominal detail was generally poor. The gastrointestinal structures could often only be identified because of their luminal gas. The right liver lobes were prominent and extended caudally beyond the costal arch. The pylorus was in a central position and the spleen could not be distinguished. Additionally, pancreas, lymph nodes, urinary bladder, and ureters were not identified. A statistically significant difference (P < or = 0.05) between female and male kidney length existed. This study emphasizes that significant species differences exist, and simply applying canine or feline radiographic interpretation will result in misinterpretation.