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Choo HC, Lee M, Yeo V, Poon W, Ihsan M. The effect of cold water immersion on the recovery of physical performance revisited: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Sports Sci 2023; 40:2608-2638. [PMID: 36862831 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2178872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
This review evaluated the effect of CWI on the temporal recovery profile of physical performance, accounting for environmental conditions and prior exercise modality. Sixty-eight studies met the inclusion criteria. Standardised mean differences were calculated for parameters assessed at <1, 1-6, 24, 48, 72 and ≥96 h post-immersion. CWI improved short-term recovery of endurance performance (p = 0.01, 1 h), but impaired sprint (p = 0.03, 1 h) and jump performance (p = 0.04, 6h). CWI improved longer-term recovery of jump performance (p < 0.01-0.02, 24 h and 96 h) and strength (p < 0.01, 24 h), which coincided with decreased creatine kinase (p < 0.01-0.04, 24-72 h), improved muscle soreness (p < 0.01-0.02, 1-72 h) and perceived recovery (p < 0.01, 72 h). CWI improved the recovery of endurance performance following exercise in warm (p < 0.01) and but not in temperate conditions (p = 0.06). CWI improved strength recovery following endurance exercise performed at cool-to-temperate conditions (p = 0.04) and enhanced recovery of sprint performance following resistance exercise (p = 0.04). CWI seems to benefit the acute recovery of endurance performance, and longer-term recovery of muscle strength and power, coinciding with changes in muscle damage markers. This, however, depends on the nature of the preceding exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Cheng Choo
- Sport Physiology Department, Sport Science and Medicine Centre, Singapore Sport Institute, Singapore
| | - Marcus Lee
- Sports Science, National Youth Sports Institute, Singapore
| | - Vincent Yeo
- Sport Physiology Department, Sport Science and Medicine Centre, Singapore Sport Institute, Singapore
| | - Wayne Poon
- School of Medical and Health Science, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
| | - Mohammed Ihsan
- Human Potential Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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Chaillou T, Treigyte V, Mosely S, Brazaitis M, Venckunas T, Cheng AJ. Functional Impact of Post-exercise Cooling and Heating on Recovery and Training Adaptations: Application to Resistance, Endurance, and Sprint Exercise. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:37. [PMID: 35254558 PMCID: PMC8901468 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00428-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The application of post-exercise cooling (e.g., cold water immersion) and post-exercise heating has become a popular intervention which is assumed to increase functional recovery and may improve chronic training adaptations. However, the effectiveness of such post-exercise temperature manipulations remains uncertain. The aim of this comprehensive review was to analyze the effects of post-exercise cooling and post-exercise heating on neuromuscular function (maximal strength and power), fatigue resistance, exercise performance, and training adaptations. We focused on three exercise types (resistance, endurance and sprint exercises) and included studies investigating (1) the early recovery phase, (2) the late recovery phase, and (3) repeated application of the treatment. We identified that the primary benefit of cooling was in the early recovery phase (< 1 h post-exercise) in improving fatigue resistance in hot ambient conditions following endurance exercise and possibly enhancing the recovery of maximal strength following resistance exercise. The primary negative impact of cooling was with chronic exposure which impaired strength adaptations and decreased fatigue resistance following resistance training intervention (12 weeks and 4–12 weeks, respectively). In the early recovery phase, cooling could also impair sprint performance following sprint exercise and could possibly reduce neuromuscular function immediately after endurance exercise. Generally, no benefits of acute cooling were observed during the 24–72-h recovery period following resistance and endurance exercises, while it could have some benefits on the recovery of neuromuscular function during the 24–48-h recovery period following sprint exercise. Most studies indicated that chronic cooling does not affect endurance training adaptations following 4–6 week training intervention. We identified limited data employing heating as a recovery intervention, but some indications suggest promise in its application to endurance and sprint exercise.
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Zhang W, Ren S, Zheng X. Effect of 3 min whole-body and lower limb cold water immersion on subsequent performance of agility, sprint, and intermittent endurance exercise. Front Physiol 2022; 13:981773. [PMID: 36299255 PMCID: PMC9589280 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.981773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of whole-body cold-water immersion (WCWI) and lower-limb cold-water immersion (LCWI) employed during a 15-min recovery period on the subsequent exercise performance as well as to determine the physiological and perceptual parameters in the heat (39°C). Eleven males performed team-sports-specific tests outdoors. The exercise program consisted of two identical exercise protocols (1 and 2) separated by a 15-min recovery period. The participants completed the same tests in each exercise protocol, in the following order: agility t test (t-test), 20-m sprint test (20M-ST), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Endurance Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo). During the recovery period, a 3-min recovery intervention of a passively seated rest (control, CON), WCWI, or LCWI was performed. The t-test and 20M-ST for the CON group were significantly longer during exercise protocol 2, but they were not significantly different between the two exercise protocols for the WCWI and LCWI groups. The completed Yo-Yo distance for the CON and LCWI groups was shorter during exercise protocol 2, but it was not significantly different between the two exercise protocols for the WCWI group. The chest temperature (Tchest), upper arm temperature (Tarm), thigh temperature (Tthigh), mean skin temperature (Tskin), and thermal sensation (TS) values were lower for the WCWI group than for the CON group; but only the Tthigh, Tskin, and TS values were lower for the LCWI group compared to the CON group. The Tchest, Tarm, Tskin, and TS values after the intervention were lower for the WCWI group than for the LCWI group. None of the three intervention conditions affected the core temperature (Tcore), heart rate (HR), or rating of perceived exertion (RPE). These results suggest that WCWI at 15°C for 3 min during the 15-min recovery period attenuates the impairment of agility, sprint, and intermittent-endurance performance during exercise protocol 2, but LCWI only ameliorates the reduction of agility and sprint performance. Furthermore, the ergogenic effects of WCWI and LCWI in the heat are due, at least in part, to a decrease of the Tskin and improvement of perceived strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Department of Sports Training, Shenyang Sport University, Shengyang, China
| | - Shoupeng Ren
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Exercise and Metabolic Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinyan Zheng
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Exercise and Metabolic Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Xinyan Zheng,
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Wang Z, Fan Y, Kong X, Viroux P, Tiemessen IJH, Wu H. The Physiological Profile Following Two Popular Cold Interventions After Activity in Hot and Humid Environment. Am J Mens Health 2022; 16:15579883221079150. [PMID: 35209744 PMCID: PMC8883315 DOI: 10.1177/15579883221079150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This research aims to describe and compare the effects of partial-body cryotherapy (PBC) and cold-water immersion (CWI) on the physiological responses of soccer players after cycling in a hot and humid environment. Sixteen elite soccer players participated in three experiments, and received CWI (13°C for 15 min), PBC (110°C−140°C for 3 min), and CON (room temperature: 21°C ± 2°C), respectively, after aerobic and anaerobic cycling in a hot and humid environment (temperature: 35°C–38°C; humidity: 60%–70%). Heart rate (HR), blood lactate (BLa-), perfusion index (PI), oxygen saturation (SaO2), core temperature (Tc), skin temperature (Ts), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed at baseline and through 20 min (5-min intervals). HR was lower in CWI than CON after 20 min (p < .05). SaO2 was higher in CWI than PBC and CON between 10 and 20 min (p < .05). Tc was lower from CWI and PBC than CON between 10 and 20 min (p < .05). Ts was lower in PBC than CWI between 15 and 20 min (p < .05). RPE was lower in PBC than CON 20 min after the exercise (p < .05). No main group differences for BLa- and PI were observed. The physiological effects of PBC are generally similar to CWI. Compared with CON, both CWI and PBC could promote the recovery of physiological indexes within 20 min of exercise in a hot and humid environment. However, PBC can lead to a decrease in SaO2 due to excessive nitrogen inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zewen Wang
- Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, Beijing, China
| | - Yongzhao Fan
- Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyang Kong
- Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, Beijing, China
| | | | | | - Hao Wu
- Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, Beijing, China
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Moore E, Fuller JT, Buckley JD, Saunders S, Halson SL, Broatch JR, Bellenger CR. Impact of Cold-Water Immersion Compared with Passive Recovery Following a Single Bout of Strenuous Exercise on Athletic Performance in Physically Active Participants: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis and Meta-regression. Sports Med 2022; 52:1667-1688. [PMID: 35157264 PMCID: PMC9213381 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01644-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Background Studies investigating the effects of cold-water immersion (CWI) on the recovery of athletic performance, perceptual measures and creatine kinase (CK) have reported mixed results in physically active populations. Objectives The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate the effects of CWI on recovery of athletic performance, perceptual measures and CK following an acute bout of exercise in physically active populations. Study Design Systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression. Methods A systematic search was conducted in September 2021 using Medline, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EmCare and Embase databases. Studies were included if they were peer reviewed and published in English, included participants who were involved in sport or deemed physically active, compared CWI with passive recovery methods following an acute bout of strenuous exercise and included athletic performance, athlete perception and CK outcome measures. Studies were divided into two strenuous exercise subgroups: eccentric exercise and high-intensity exercise. Random effects meta-analyses were used to determine standardised mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals. Meta-regression analyses were completed with water temperature and exposure durations as continuous moderator variables. Results Fifty-two studies were included in the meta-analyses. CWI improved the recovery of muscular power 24 h after eccentric exercise (SMD 0.34 [95% CI 0.06–0.62]) and after high-intensity exercise (SMD 0.22 [95% CI 0.004–0.43]), and reduced serum CK (SMD − 0.85 [95% CI − 1.61 to − 0.08]) 24 h after high-intensity exercise. CWI also improved muscle soreness (SMD − 0.89 [95% CI − 1.48 to − 0.29]) and perceived feelings of recovery (SMD 0.66 [95% CI 0.29–1.03]) 24 h after high-intensity exercise. There was no significant influence on the recovery of strength performance following either eccentric or high-intensity exercise. Meta-regression indicated that shorter time and lower temperatures were related to the largest beneficial effects on serum CK (duration and temperature dose effects) and endurance performance (duration dose effects only) after high-intensity exercise. Conclusion CWI was an effective recovery tool after high-intensity exercise, with positive outcomes occurring for muscular power, muscle soreness, CK, and perceived recovery 24 h after exercise. However, after eccentric exercise, CWI was only effective for positively influencing muscular power 24 h after exercise. Dose–response relationships emerged for positively influencing endurance performance and reducing serum CK, indicating that shorter durations and lower temperatures may improve the efficacy of CWI if used after high-intensity exercise. Funding Emma Moore is supported by a Research Training Program (Domestic) Scholarship from the Australian Commonwealth Department of Education and Training. Protocol registration Open Science Framework: 10.17605/OSF.IO/SRB9D. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-022-01644-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Moore
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia.
| | - Joel T Fuller
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jonathan D Buckley
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Siena Saunders
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Shona L Halson
- School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, McAuley at Banyo, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - James R Broatch
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHES), Victoria University, Footscray, VIC, Australia
| | - Clint R Bellenger
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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Egaña M, Allen L, Gleeson K, Gildea N, Warmington S. Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion Does Not Improve Subsequent 4-km Cycling Time-Trial Compared With Passive and Active Recovery in Normothermia. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:738870. [PMID: 34761215 PMCID: PMC8573130 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.738870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: We investigated whether a brief cold water immersion between two cycling time trials (TT) improves the performance of the latter compared with passive and active recovery in normothermic conditions (~20°C). Methods: In Experiment 1 10 active participants (4 women) completed two 4-km TT (Ex1 and Ex2, each preceded by a 12 min moderate-intensity warm-up) separated by a 15 min recovery period consisting of: (a) passive rest (PAS) or (b) 5 min cold water immersion at 8°C (CWI-5). In Experiment 2, 13 different active males completed the same Ex1 and Ex2 bouts separated by a 15 min recovery consisting of: (a) PAS, (b) 10 min cold water immersion at 8°C (CWI-10) or (c) 15 min of moderate-intensity active recovery (ACT). Results: In both experiments, the time to complete the 4-km TT-s was not different (P > 0.05, ES = 0.1) among the trials neither in Ex1 (Experiment 1: PAS: 414 ± 39 s; CWI-5: 410 ± 39 s; Experiment 2: PAS: 402 ± 41 s; CWI-10: 404 ± 43 s; ACT: 407 ± 41 s) nor Ex2 (Experiment 1: PAS: 432 ± 43 s; CWI-5: 428 ± 47 s; Experiment 2: PAS: 418 ± 52 s; CWI-10: 416 ± 57 s; ACT: 421 ± 50 s). In addition, in all conditions, the time to complete the time trials was longer (P < 0.05, ES = 0.4) in Ex2 than Ex1. Core temperature was lower (P < 0.05) during the majority of Ex2 after CW-5 compared with passive rest (Experiment 1) and after CWI-10 compared with PAS and ACT (Experiment 2). Perceived exertion was also lower (P < 0.05) at mid-point of Ex2 after CWI-5 compared with PAS (Experiment 1) as well as overall lower during the CWI-10 compared with PAS and ACT conditions (Experiment 2). Conclusion: A post-exercise 5-10 min cold water immersion does not influence subsequent 4-km TT performance in normothermia, despite evoking reductions in thermal strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikel Egaña
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Lynn Allen
- Faculty of Science & Health, Athlone Institute of Technology, Athlone, Ireland
| | - Kate Gleeson
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Norita Gildea
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Stuart Warmington
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, School of Exercise and Nutrition, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
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A 2.5 min cold water immersion improves prolonged intermittent sprint performance. J Sci Med Sport 2019; 22:1349-1354. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2019.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Christiansen D, Bishop DJ, Broatch JR, Bangsbo J, McKenna MJ, Murphy RM. Cold-water immersion after training sessions: effects on fiber type-specific adaptations in muscle K + transport proteins to sprint-interval training in men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2018; 125:429-444. [PMID: 29745801 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00259.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Effects of regular use of cold-water immersion (CWI) on fiber type-specific adaptations in muscle K+ transport proteins to intense training, along with their relationship to changes in mRNA levels after the first training session, were investigated in humans. Nineteen recreationally active men (24 ± 6 yr, 79.5 ± 10.8 kg, 44.6 ± 5.8 ml·kg-1·min-1) completed six weeks of sprint-interval cycling, either without (passive rest; CON) or with training sessions followed by CWI (15 min at 10°C; COLD). Muscle biopsies were obtained before and after training to determine abundance of Na+, K+-ATPase isoforms (α1-3, β1-3) and phospholemman (FXYD1) and after recovery treatments (+0 h and +3 h) on the first day of training to measure mRNA content. Training increased ( P < 0.05) the abundance of α1 and β3 in both fiber types and β1 in type-II fibers and decreased FXYD1 in type-I fibers, whereas α2 and α3 abundance was not altered by training ( P > 0.05). CWI after each session did not influence responses to training ( P > 0.05). However, α2 mRNA increased after the first session in COLD (+0 h, P < 0.05) but not in CON ( P > 0.05). In both conditions, α1 and β3 mRNA increased (+3 h; P < 0.05) and β2 mRNA decreased (+3 h; P < 0.05), whereas α3, β1, and FXYD1 mRNA remained unchanged ( P > 0.05) after the first session. In summary, Na+,K+-ATPase isoforms are differently regulated in type I and II muscle fibers by sprint-interval training in humans, which, for most isoforms, do not associate with changes in mRNA levels after the first training session. CWI neither impairs nor improves protein adaptations to intense training of importance for muscle K+ regulation. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Although cold-water immersion (CWI) after training and competition has become a routine for many athletes, limited published evidence exists regarding its impact on training adaptation. Here, we show that CWI can be performed regularly without impairing training-induced adaptations at the fiber-type level important for muscle K+ handling. Furthermore, sprint-interval training invoked fiber type-specific adaptations in K+ transport proteins, which may explain the dissociated responses of whole-muscle protein levels and K+ transport function to training previously reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny Christiansen
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University , Melbourne, Victoria , Australia.,Department of Nutrition, Exercise, and Sports, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - David J Bishop
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University , Melbourne, Victoria , Australia.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Perth, Western Australia , Australia
| | - James R Broatch
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University , Melbourne, Victoria , Australia
| | - Jens Bangsbo
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise, and Sports, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Michael J McKenna
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University , Melbourne, Victoria , Australia
| | - Robyn M Murphy
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University , Melbourne, Victoria , Australia
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