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Ringleb M, Javelle F, Haunhorst S, Bloch W, Fennen L, Baumgart S, Drube S, Reuken PA, Pletz MW, Wagner H, Gabriel HHW, Puta C. Beyond muscles: Investigating immunoregulatory myokines in acute resistance exercise - A systematic review and meta-analysis. FASEB J 2024; 38:e23596. [PMID: 38597350 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202301619r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Myokines, released from the muscle, enable communication between the working muscles and other tissues. Their release during physical exercise is assumed to depend on immune-hormonal-metabolic interactions concerning mode (endurance or resistance exercise), duration, and intensity. This meta-analysis aims to examine the acute changes of circulating myokines inducing immunoregulatory effects caused by a bout of resistance exercise and to consider potential moderators of the results. Based on this selection strategy, a systematic literature search was conducted for resistance exercise intervention studies measuring interleukin (IL-) 6, IL-10, IL-1ra, tumor necrosis factor (TNF-) α, IL-15, IL-7, transforming growth factor (TGF-) β1, and fractalkines (FKN) before and immediately after resistance exercise in healthy individuals. Random-effects meta-analysis was performed for each myokine. We identified a moderate positive effect of resistance exercise for IL-6 and IL-1ra. Regarding IL-15 and TNF-α, small to moderate effects were found. For IL-10, no significant effect was observed. Due to no data, meta-analyses for IL-7, TGF-β1, and FKN could not be performed. No moderators (training status, type of exercise, risk of bias, age, sex, time of day, exercise volume, exercise intensity, exercise dose) of the results were detected for all tested myokines. Taken together, this systematic review and meta-analysis showed immediate positive effects of an acute resistance exercise session on IL-6, IL-1ra, TNF-α, and IL-15 levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Ringleb
- Department of Movement Science, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Department of Sports Medicine and Health Promotion, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Department for Molecular and Cellular Sports Medicine, Institute of Cardiovascular Research and Sports Medicine, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Prevention of Diseases related to Professional Activities, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Florian Javelle
- Department for Molecular and Cellular Sports Medicine, Institute of Cardiovascular Research and Sports Medicine, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Simon Haunhorst
- Department of Sports Medicine and Health Promotion, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Prevention of Diseases related to Professional Activities, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Bloch
- Department for Molecular and Cellular Sports Medicine, Institute of Cardiovascular Research and Sports Medicine, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Lena Fennen
- Department of Movement Science, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sabine Baumgart
- Institute for Immunology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Drube
- Institute for Immunology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Philipp A Reuken
- Clinic for Internal Medicine IV (Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases), Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Mathias W Pletz
- Institute for Immunology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Center for Sepsis Control and Care (CSCC), Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Institute for Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Heiko Wagner
- Department of Movement Science, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Holger H W Gabriel
- Department of Sports Medicine and Health Promotion, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Puta
- Department of Sports Medicine and Health Promotion, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Prevention of Diseases related to Professional Activities, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Center for Sepsis Control and Care (CSCC), Jena University Hospital, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
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Ahmadi Hekmatikar A, Nelson A, Petersen A. Highlighting the idea of exerkines in the management of cancer patients with cachexia: novel insights and a critical review. BMC Cancer 2023; 23:889. [PMID: 37730552 PMCID: PMC10512651 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-023-11391-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exerkines are all peptides, metabolites, and nucleic acids released into the bloodstream during and after physical exercise. Exerkines liberated from skeletal muscle (myokines), the heart (cardiokines), liver (hepatokines), white adipose tissue (adipokines), brown adipose tissue (batokines), and neurons (neurokines) may benefit health and wellbeing. Cancer-related cachexia is a highly prevalent disorder characterized by weight loss with specific skeletal muscle and adipose tissue loss. Many studies have sought to provide exercise strategies for managing cachexia, focusing on musculoskeletal tissue changes. Therefore, understanding the responses of musculoskeletal and other tissue exerkines to acute and chronic exercise may provide novel insight and recommendations for physical training to counteract cancer-related cachexia. METHODS For the purpose of conducting this study review, we made efforts to gather relevant studies and thoroughly discuss them to create a comprehensive overview. To achieve this, we conducted searches using appropriate keywords in various databases. Studies that were deemed irrelevant to the current research, not available in English, or lacking full-text access were excluded. Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge the limited amount of research conducted in this specific field. RESULTS In order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the findings, we prioritized human studies in order to obtain results that closely align with the scope of the present study. However, in instances where human studies were limited or additional analysis was required to draw more robust conclusions, we also incorporated animal studies. Finally, 295 studies, discussed in this review. CONCLUSION Our understanding of the underlying physiological mechanisms related to the significance of investigating exerkines in cancer cachexia is currently quite basic. Nonetheless, this demonstrated that resistance and aerobic exercise can contribute to the reduction and control of the disease in individuals with cancer cachexia, as well as in survivors, by inducing changes in exerkines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirhossein Ahmadi Hekmatikar
- Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, 14117-13116, Iran
| | - André Nelson
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Aaron Petersen
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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Babiarz M, Laskowski R, Grzywacz T. Effects of Strength Training on BDNF in Healthy Young Adults. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph192113795. [PMID: 36360677 PMCID: PMC9658702 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192113795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The physical improvements from strength and resistance training have been known for decades, but the cognitive benefits of this type of activity are not as well-known. The aim of this review article is to provide a summary of studies presenting the effects of strength and resistance training on BDNF in healthy young adults. A systematic search of various electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct and Google Scholar) was conducted in September 2022. Studies that examined associations between strength training and BDNF in healthy young adults aged 18-30 years were included. The final sample included 10 studies published between 2009 and 2020. The results of this literature review are inconclusive. Based on the results of the 10 studies, there is no clear answer as to whether strength training has positive effects on BDNF in healthy young adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miroslaw Babiarz
- Department of Physiology, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, 80-336 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Radoslaw Laskowski
- Department of Physiology, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, 80-336 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Tomasz Grzywacz
- Department of Sport, Institute of Physical Education, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, 85-604 Bydgoszcz, Poland
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Similar Inflammatory Adaptation in Women following 10 Weeks of Two Equalized Resistance Training with Different Muscle Action Duration. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:2185111. [PMID: 35757469 PMCID: PMC9217554 DOI: 10.1155/2022/2185111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study is aimed at evaluating the profile of inflammatory markers and components of redox regulation in untrained women after 10 weeks of resistance training using equalized protocols but different muscle action duration (MAD). Twenty-two women underwent progressive resistance training exercising the knee extensor muscles for 10 weeks—3x/week, with 3-5 sets of 6 repetitions at 50% of the 1 repetition maximum strength test (1RM), with a rest of 180 s between the series, following the training protocol (i) 5 s of concentric muscle action for 1 s of eccentric muscle action (5C-1E) and (ii) 1 s of concentric muscle action for 5 s of eccentric muscle action (1C-5E). Quadriceps muscle hypertrophy maximum strength (1RM) and redox regulation/muscle damage/inflammatory markers (CAT, SOD, TBARS, FRAP, CH, LDH, CXCL8, and CCL2) were evaluated. Plasma markers were evaluated before and 30 minutes after the first and last training sessions. A similar gain in hypertrophy and maximum strength was observed in both groups. However, in the 5C-1E, a significant major effect was observed for SOD (F1.19 = 10.480, p = 0.004) and a significant major time effect, with a reduction in the last training session, was observed for CXCL8 (F1.37 = 27.440, p < 0.001). In conclusion, similar protocols of resistance training, with different MAD, produced similar inflammatory and adaptive responses to strength training. As the training load is progressive, the maintenance of this inflammatory and redox regulation profile suggests an adaptive response to the proposed strength training.
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Rivas-Campo Y, García-Garro PA, Aibar-Almazán A, Martínez-Amat A, Vega-Ávila GC, Afanador-Restrepo DF, León-Morillas F, Hita-Contreras F. The Effects of High-Intensity Functional Training on Cognition in Older Adults with Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review. Healthcare (Basel) 2022; 10:670. [PMID: 35455847 PMCID: PMC9025277 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare10040670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) is a new exercise modality that emphasizes multi-joint functional movements adaptable to any fitness level and promotes greater muscle recruitment. Previous studies have evaluated the positive effects of HIFT on mental and cognitive health but have not evaluated it in older people. This study aims to conduct a systematic review of randomized controlled trials assessing the effects of HIFT on general cognition in older adults with cognitive impairment. (2) Methods: Following the PRISMA 2020 guideline, articles that did a high-intensity functional physical exercise intervention on cognitive performance in older adults with mild to moderate cognitive impairment (MMSE > 10) or dementia, aged 55 years or older, published between 2011 and 2021 in five different electronic databases: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, CINAHL, and Cochrane plus were included. (3) Results: 7 articles were included, all having general cognition as their primary outcome. All assessed general cognition using the Mini-Mental State Examination, the ADAS-Cog, or both. All studies had at least one HIFT experimental group with a frequency of 2 sessions per week and a variable duration between protocols of 12, 13, 16, and 26 weeks. Two articles showed that a progressive HIFT program improves general cognition, four articles showed no significant changes within or between groups and one article concluded that a HIFT intervention does not slow cognitive decline. (4) Conclusions: Evidence exists of the benefits of HIFT on general cognition in older adults with cognitive impairment, assessed using the MMSE, the ADAS-cog, or both. Two articles that showed improvement in cognitive function used progressive HIFT with 80% RM at 6, 12, and 1 weeks; however, in the other articles, due to the heterogeneity of intervention protocols, measurement time points, and control group activities, mixed results were evidenced
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulieth Rivas-Campo
- Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, University of San Buenaventura—Cali, Santiago de Cali 760016, Colombia;
| | - Patricia Alexandra García-Garro
- School by Faculty of Distance Learning and Virtual Education, Antonio José Camacho University Institution, Santiago de Cali 760016, Colombia; (P.A.G.-G.); (G.C.V.-Á.)
| | - Agustín Aibar-Almazán
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain; (A.M.-A.); (F.H.-C.)
| | - Antonio Martínez-Amat
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain; (A.M.-A.); (F.H.-C.)
| | - Gloria Cecilia Vega-Ávila
- School by Faculty of Distance Learning and Virtual Education, Antonio José Camacho University Institution, Santiago de Cali 760016, Colombia; (P.A.G.-G.); (G.C.V.-Á.)
| | | | - Felipe León-Morillas
- Department of Physiotherapy, Catholic University of Murcia UCAM, 30107 Murcia, Spain;
| | - Fidel Hita-Contreras
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain; (A.M.-A.); (F.H.-C.)
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Myokines and Resistance Training: A Narrative Review. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073501. [PMID: 35408868 PMCID: PMC8998961 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last few years, the muscular system has gained attention due to the discovery of the muscle-secretome and its high potency for retaining or regaining health. These cytokines, described as myokines, released by the working muscle, are involved in anti-inflammatory, metabolic and immunological processes. These are able to influence human health in a positive way and are a target of research in metabolic diseases, cancer, neurological diseases, and other non-communicable diseases. Therefore, different types of exercise training were investigated in the last few years to find associations between exercise, myokines and their effects on human health. Particularly, resistance training turned out to be a powerful stimulus to enhance myokine release. As there are different types of resistance training, different myokines are stimulated, depending on the mode of training. This narrative review gives an overview about resistance training and how it can be utilized to stimulate myokine production in order to gain a certain health effect. Finally, the question of why resistance training is an important key regulator in human health will be discussed.
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Are Resistance Training-Induced BDNF in Hemodialysis Patients Associated with Depressive Symptoms, Quality of Life, Antioxidant Capacity, and Muscle Strength? An Insight for the Muscle-Brain-Renal Axis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182111299. [PMID: 34769814 PMCID: PMC8583357 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Background: Hemodialysis patients are suffering from depressive symptoms. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels are negatively associated with depressive symptoms and decrease during a single hemodialysis session. Resistance training (RT) might be an additional non-pharmacological tool to increase BDNF and promote mental health. Methods: Two randomized groups of hemodialysis patients: control (CTL, n = 76/F36; 66.33 ± 3.88 years) and RT (n = 81/F35; 67.27 ± 3.24 years). RT completed six months of training thrice a week under the supervision of strength and conditioning professional immediately before the dialysis session. Training loads were adjusted using the OMNI rating of perceived exertion. The total antioxidant capacity (TROLOX), glutathione (GSH), thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS), and BDNF levels were analyzed in serum samples. Quality of life (assessed through Medical Outcomes—SF36), and Beck Depression Inventory was applied. Results: RT improved handgrip strength (21.17 ± 4.38 vs. 27.17 ± 4.34; p = 0.001) but not for CTL (20.09 ± 5.19 vs. 19.75 ± 5.54; p = 0.001). Post-training, RT group had higher values as compared to CTL related to TROLOX (RT,680.8 ± 225.2 vs. CTL,589.5 ± 195.9; p = 0.001) and GSH (RT, 9.33 ± 2.09 vs. CTL,5.00 ± 2.96; p = 0.001). RT group had lower values of TBARS as compared to CTL at post-training (RT, 11.06 ± 2.95 vs. CTL, 13.66 ± 2.62; p = 0.001). BDNF increased for RT (11.66 ± 5.20 vs. 19.60 ± 7.23; p = 0.001), but decreased for CTL (14.40 ± 4.99 vs. 10.84 ± 5.94; p = 0.001). Quality of life and mental health increased (p = 0.001) for RT, but did not change for CTL (p = 0.001). BDNF levels were associated with emotional dimensions of SF36, depressive symptoms, and handgrip (p = 0.001). Conclusions: RT was effective as a non-pharmacological tool to increased BDNF levels, quality of life, temper the redox balance and decrease depressive symptoms intensity in hemodialysis patients.
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Ben-Zeev T, Hirsh T, Weiss I, Gornstein M, Okun E. The Effects of High-intensity Functional Training (HIFT) on Spatial Learning, Visual Pattern Separation and Attention Span in Adolescents. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:577390. [PMID: 33093827 PMCID: PMC7521200 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.577390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aerobic, anaerobic, and strength exercises are known to improve various cognitive functions, such as executive functions, pattern separation, and working memory. High-intensity functional training (HIFT) is a form of physical activity that can be modified to any fitness level and elicits greater muscle recruitment than repetitive aerobic exercises, thereby improving cardiovascular endurance, strength, and flexibility. HIFT emphasizes functional, multi-joint movements via high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and muscle-strengthening exercises. It is yet unknown, however, whether HIFT affects cognitive functions in adolescents. To address this question, we subjected adolescents to 3 × 20 min training sessions/week of HIFT for 3 months. The effects of HIFT were tested on performance in: (1) virtual reality (VR)-based spatial learning task; (2) computerized visual pattern separation; and (3) attention span. The control group performed a typical physical class three times per week. The effects on cognition were tested at baseline and following 3 months of HIFT. Three months into the intervention, the HIFT group achieved higher scores in the spatial learning task, pattern separation task, and in the attention span test, compared with controls. These data suggest that HIFT can potentially translate into improving school performance in adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tavor Ben-Zeev
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.,The Leslie and Susan Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.,The Paul Feder Laboratory on Alzheimer's Disease Research, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Tamir Hirsh
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.,The Paul Feder Laboratory on Alzheimer's Disease Research, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Inbal Weiss
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.,The Leslie and Susan Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.,The Paul Feder Laboratory on Alzheimer's Disease Research, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | | | - Eitan Okun
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.,The Leslie and Susan Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.,The Paul Feder Laboratory on Alzheimer's Disease Research, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
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Johnson TK, Belcher DJ, Sousa CA, Carzoli JP, Visavadiya NP, Khamoui AV, Whitehurst M, Zourdos MC. Low-volume acute multi-joint resistance exercise elicits a circulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor response but not a cathepsin B response in well-trained men. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 45:1332-1338. [PMID: 32531180 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
This study examined if acute multi-joint resistance exercises (RE; back squat, bench press, and deadlift) to volitional failure elicited a postexercise increase in the circulating response of biomarkers associated with neuroprotection. Thirteen males (age: 24.5 ± 3.8 years, body mass: 84.01 ± 15.44 kg, height: 173.43 ± 8.57 cm, training age: 7.1 ± 4.2 years) performed 4 sets to failure at 80% of a 1-repetition maximum on the squat, bench press, and deadlift in successive weeks. The measured biomarkers were brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), cathepsin B (CatB), and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Biomarkers were assessed immediately before and 10-min after exercise. There was a main time effect (pre-exercise: 24.00 ± 0.61 to postexercise: 27.38 ± 0.48 ng/mL; p < 0.01) for BDNF with increases in the deadlift (p = 0.01) and bench press (p = 0.01) conditions, but not in the squat condition (p = 0.21). There was a main time effect (pre-exercise: 0.87 ± 0.16 to postexercise: 2.03 ± 0.32 pg/mL; p < 0.01) for IL-6 with a significant increase in the squat (p < 0.01), but not the bench press (p = 0.88) and deadlift conditions (p = 0.24). No main time effect was observed for either CatB (p = 0.62) or IGF-1 (p = 0.56). In summary, acute multi-joint RE increases circulating BDNF. Further, this investigation is the first to report the lack of a transient change of CatB to an acute RE protocol. Novelty Low-volume RE to failure can increase BDNF. Resistance training does not confer an acute Cat B response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor K Johnson
- Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA.,Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Daniel J Belcher
- Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA.,Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Colby A Sousa
- Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA.,Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Joseph P Carzoli
- Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA.,Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Nishant P Visavadiya
- Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA.,Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Andy V Khamoui
- Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA.,Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Michael Whitehurst
- Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA.,Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Michael C Zourdos
- Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA.,Florida Atlantic University, Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
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