1
|
Mineralogical and Genomic Constraints on the Origin of Microbial Mn Oxide Formation in Complexed Microbial Community at the Terrestrial Hot Spring. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12060816. [PMID: 35743847 PMCID: PMC9224936 DOI: 10.3390/life12060816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Manganese (Mn) oxides are widespread on the surface environments of the modern Earth. The role of microbial activities in the formation of Mn oxides has been discussed for several decades. However, the mechanisms of microbial Mn oxidation, and its role in complex microbial communities in natural environments, remain uncertain. Here, we report the geochemical, mineralogical, and metagenomic evidence for biogenic Mn oxides, found in Japanese hot spring sinters. The low crystallinity of Mn oxides, and their spatial associations with organic matter, support the biogenic origin of Mn oxides. Specific multicopper oxidases (MCOs), which are considered Mn-oxidizing enzymes, were identified using metagenomic analyses. Nanoscale nuggets of copper sulfides were, also, discovered in the organic matter in Mn-rich sinters. A part of these copper sulfides most likely represents traces of MCOs, and this is the first report of traces of Mn-oxidizing enzyme in geological samples. Metagenomic analyses, surprisingly, indicated a close association of Mn oxides, not only in aerobic but also in anaerobic microbial communities. These new findings offer the unique and unified positions of Mn oxides, with roles that have not been ignored, to sustain anaerobic microbial communities in hot spring environments.
Collapse
|
2
|
Ehrlich H, Bailey E, Wysokowski M, Jesionowski T. Forced Biomineralization: A Review. Biomimetics (Basel) 2021; 6:46. [PMID: 34287234 PMCID: PMC8293141 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics6030046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Biologically induced and controlled mineralization of metals promotes the development of protective structures to shield cells from thermal, chemical, and ultraviolet stresses. Metal biomineralization is widely considered to have been relevant for the survival of life in the environmental conditions of ancient terrestrial oceans. Similar behavior is seen among extremophilic biomineralizers today, which have evolved to inhabit a variety of industrial aqueous environments with elevated metal concentrations. As an example of extreme biomineralization, we introduce the category of "forced biomineralization", which we use to refer to the biologically mediated sequestration of dissolved metals and metalloids into minerals. We discuss forced mineralization as it is known to be carried out by a variety of organisms, including polyextremophiles in a range of psychrophilic, thermophilic, anaerobic, alkaliphilic, acidophilic, and halophilic conditions, as well as in environments with very high or toxic metal ion concentrations. While much additional work lies ahead to characterize the various pathways by which these biominerals form, forced biomineralization has been shown to provide insights for the progression of extreme biomimetics, allowing for promising new forays into creating the next generation of composites using organic-templating approaches under biologically extreme laboratory conditions relevant to a wide range of industrial conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hermann Ehrlich
- Institute of Electronic and Sensor Materials, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, 09599 Freiberg, Germany
- Center for Advanced Technology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61614 Poznan, Poland
- Centre for Climate Change Research, Toronto, ON M4P 1J4, Canada
- ICUBE-University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Bailey
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA;
| | - Marcin Wysokowski
- Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
| | - Teofil Jesionowski
- Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lang-Yona N, Maier S, Macholdt DS, Müller-Germann I, Yordanova P, Rodriguez-Caballero E, Jochum KP, Al-Amri A, Andreae MO, Fröhlich-Nowoisky J, Weber B. Insights into microbial involvement in desert varnish formation retrieved from metagenomic analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2018; 10:264-271. [PMID: 29488349 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.12634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Desert varnishes are dark rock coatings observed in arid environments and might resemble Mn-rich coatings found on Martian rocks. Their formation mechanism is not fully understood and the possible microbial involvement is under debate. In this study, we applied DNA metagenomic Shotgun sequencing of varnish and surrounding soil to evaluate the composition of the microbial community and its potential metabolic function. We found that the α diversity was lower in varnish compared to soil samples (p value < 0.05), suggesting distinct populations with significantly higher abundance of Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria and Cyanobacteria within the varnish. Additionally, we observed increased levels of transition metal metabolic processes in varnish compared to soil samples. Nevertheless, potentially relevant enzymes for varnish formation were detected at low to insignificant levels in both niches, indicating no current direct microbial involvement in Mn oxidation. This finding is supported by quantitative genomic analysis, elemental analysis, fluorescence imaging and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy. We thus conclude that the distinct microbial communities detected in desert varnish originate from settled Aeolian microbes, which colonized this nutrient-enriched niche, and discuss possible indirect contributions of microorganisms to the formation of desert varnish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naama Lang-Yona
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefanie Maier
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Dorothea S Macholdt
- Biogeochemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
- Climate Geochemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Isabell Müller-Germann
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Petya Yordanova
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Emilio Rodriguez-Caballero
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Klaus P Jochum
- Climate Geochemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Abdullah Al-Amri
- Geology and Geophysics Department, King Saud University, PO Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Meinrat O Andreae
- Biogeochemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
- Geology and Geophysics Department, King Saud University, PO Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Janine Fröhlich-Nowoisky
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Bettina Weber
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
The importance of manganese in the physiology of marine microbes, the biogeochemistry of the ocean and the health of microbial communities of past and present is emerging. Manganese is distributed widely throughout the global ocean, taking the form of an essential antioxidant (Mn2+), a potent oxidant (Mn3+) and strong adsorbent (Mn oxides) sequestering disproportionately high levels of trace metals and nutrients in comparison to the surrounding seawater. Manganese is, in fact, linked to nearly all other elemental cycles and intricately involved in the health, metabolism and function of the ocean's microbiome. Here, we briefly review the diversity of microbes and pathways responsible for the transformation of Mn within the three Mn pools and their distribution within the marine environment. Despite decades of interrogation, we still have much to learn about the players, mechanisms and consequences of the Mn cycle, and new and exciting discoveries are being made at a rapid rate. What is clear is the dynamic and ever-inspiring complexity of reactions involving Mn, and the acknowledgement that microorganisms are the catalytic engine driving the Mn cycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Colleen M Hansel
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Marnocha CL, Dixon JC. Endolithic bacterial communities in rock coatings from Kärkevagge, Swedish Lapland. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2014; 90:533-42. [DOI: 10.1111/1574-6941.12415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - John C. Dixon
- Department of Geosciences; University of Arkansas; Fayetteville AR USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Favet J, Lapanje A, Giongo A, Kennedy S, Aung YY, Cattaneo A, Davis-Richardson AG, Brown CT, Kort R, Brumsack HJ, Schnetger B, Chappell A, Kroijenga J, Beck A, Schwibbert K, Mohamed AH, Kirchner T, de Quadros PD, Triplett EW, Broughton WJ, Gorbushina AA. Microbial hitchhikers on intercontinental dust: catching a lift in Chad. ISME JOURNAL 2012; 7:850-67. [PMID: 23254516 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2012.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Ancient mariners knew that dust whipped up from deserts by strong winds travelled long distances, including over oceans. Satellite remote sensing revealed major dust sources across the Sahara. Indeed, the Bodélé Depression in the Republic of Chad has been called the dustiest place on earth. We analysed desert sand from various locations in Chad and dust that had blown to the Cape Verde Islands. High throughput sequencing techniques combined with classical microbiological methods showed that the samples contained a large variety of microbes well adapted to the harsh desert conditions. The most abundant bacterial groupings in four different phyla included: (a) Firmicutes-Bacillaceae, (b) Actinobacteria-Geodermatophilaceae, Nocardiodaceae and Solirubrobacteraceae, (c) Proteobacteria-Oxalobacteraceae, Rhizobiales and Sphingomonadaceae, and (d) Bacteroidetes-Cytophagaceae. Ascomycota was the overwhelmingly dominant fungal group followed by Basidiomycota and traces of Chytridiomycota, Microsporidia and Glomeromycota. Two freshwater algae (Trebouxiophyceae) were isolated. Most predominant taxa are widely distributed land inhabitants that are common in soil and on the surfaces of plants. Examples include Bradyrhizobium spp. that nodulate and fix nitrogen in Acacia species, the predominant trees of the Sahara as well as Herbaspirillum (Oxalobacteraceae), a group of chemoorganotrophic free-living soil inhabitants that fix nitrogen in association with Gramineae roots. Few pathogenic strains were found, suggesting that African dust is not a large threat to public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyne Favet
- Université de Genève, Sciences III, Genève 4, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhang T, Liu M, Sun J, Shi Y, Zeng J, Lou K. Bacterial diversity in rock varnish of extreme arid region of Turpan Basin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chnaes.2012.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
8
|
Northup DE, Snider JR, Spilde MN, Porter ML, van de Kamp JL, Boston PJ, Nyberg AM, Bargar JR. Diversity of rock varnish bacterial communities from Black Canyon, New Mexico. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jg001107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diana E. Northup
- Department of Biology; University of New Mexico; Albuquerque New Mexico USA
| | - Jessica R. Snider
- Department of Biology; University of New Mexico; Albuquerque New Mexico USA
| | - Michael N. Spilde
- Institute of Meteoritics; University of New Mexico; Albuquerque New Mexico USA
| | - Megan L. Porter
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Maryland Baltimore County; Baltimore Maryland USA
| | | | - Penelope J. Boston
- Earth and Environmental Science Department; New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology; Socorro New Mexico USA
| | - April M. Nyberg
- National Clonal Germplasm Repository; USDA-ARS; Corvallis Oregon USA
| | - John R. Bargar
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory; Menlo Park California USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ivanova N, Sikorski J, Jando M, Munk C, Lapidus A, Glavina Del Rio T, Copeland A, Tice H, Cheng JF, Lucas S, Chen F, Nolan M, Bruce D, Goodwin L, Pitluck S, Mavromatis K, Mikhailova N, Pati A, Chen A, Palaniappan K, Land M, Hauser L, Chang YJ, Jeffries CD, Meincke L, Brettin T, Detter JC, Rohde M, Göker M, Bristow J, Eisen JA, Markowitz V, Hugenholtz P, Kyrpides NC, Klenk HP. Complete genome sequence of Geodermatophilus obscurus type strain (G-20). Stand Genomic Sci 2010; 2:158-67. [PMID: 21304698 PMCID: PMC3035280 DOI: 10.4056/sigs.711311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Geodermatophilus obscurus Luedemann 1968 is the type species of the genus, which is the type genus of the family Geodermatophilaceae. G. obscurus is of interest as it has frequently been isolated from stressful environments such as rock varnish in deserts, and as it exhibits interesting phenotypes such as lytic capability of yeast cell walls, UV-C resistance, strong production of extracellular functional amyloid (FuBA) and manganese oxidation. This is the first completed genome sequence of the family Geodermatophilaceae. The 5,322,497 bp long genome with its 5,161 protein-coding and 58 RNA genes is part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project.
Collapse
|
10
|
Krinsley D, Dorn RI, DiGregorio B. Astrobiological implications of rock varnish in Tibet. ASTROBIOLOGY 2009; 9:551-562. [PMID: 19663762 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2008.0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The study of terrestrial geomicrobiology and its relationship to rock weathering processes is an essential tool in developing analogues for similar processes that may have occurred on Mars. Most studies of manganese-enhanced rock varnish have focused on samples taken from warm arid desert regions. Here, we examine samples obtained from eolian-abraded lava flows of the 4700-4800 m high Ashikule Basin in Tibet. Because it receives approximately 300 mm of precipitation annually, this site is nowhere near as dry as Atacama Desert locales. However, the dusty, sulfate-rich, high-altitude and high-UV flux environment of the Tibetan locale offers new insight into rock varnish formation processes in a terrestrial environment that displays some attributes similar to those expected on early Mars. Microprobe measurements reveal that Mn enhancements in varnish are two orders of magnitude above the dust source, but Fe is only enhanced by a factor of three. Manganese-enhancing bacterial forms are not abundant but are still approximately 3 times more common than in Mojave and Sonoran Desert varnishes. In addition to its occurrence in subaerial positions, Tibetan varnish also occurs in micron-scale "pods" enveloped by silica glaze and as remobilized constituents that have migrated into the underlying weathering rind. A lack of surficial Mn-rich varnish, therefore, might not imply the absence of varnish. In contrast to suggestions that silica glaze might be a good source of microbial fossils and a key to varnish formation, we did not observe any clear microfossil forms entombed in silica glaze; further, there is no gradation between varnish and silica glaze but only distinct contacts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Krinsley
- Department of Geological Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403-1272, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kuhlman KR, Venkat P, La Duc MT, Kuhlman GM, McKay CP. Evidence of a microbial community associated with rock varnish at Yungay, Atacama Desert, Chile. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jg000677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Parth Venkat
- California Institute of Technology; Pasadena California USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Biofilms are interface micro-habitats formed by microbes that differ markedly from those of the ambient environment. The term 'subaerial biofilm' (SAB) was coined for microbial communities that develop on solid mineral surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. Subaerial biofilms are ubiquitous, self-sufficient, miniature microbial ecosystems that are found on buildings, bare rocks in deserts, mountains, and at all latitudes where direct contact with the atmosphere and solar radiation occurs. Subaerial biofilms on exposed terrestrial surfaces are characterized by patchy growth that is dominated by associations of fungi, algae, cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria. Inherent subaerial settlers include specialized actinobacteria (e.g. Geodermatophilus), cyanobacteria and microcolonial fungi. Individuals within SAB communities avoid sexual reproduction, but cooperate extensively with one another especially to avoid loss of energy and nutrients. Subaerial biofilm metabolic activity centres on retention of water, protecting the cells from fluctuating environmental conditions and solar radiation as well as prolonging their vegetative life. Atmospheric aerosols, gases and propagatory particles serve as sources of nutrients and inoculum for these open communities. Subaerial biofilms induce chemical and physical changes to rock materials, and they penetrate the mineral substrate contributing to rock and mineral decay, which manifests itself as bio-weathering of rock surfaces. Given their characteristic slow and sensitive growth, SAB may also serve as bioindicators of atmospheric and/or climate change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna A Gorbushina
- Geomicrobiology, ICBM, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky-Str. 9-11, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Fajardo-Cavazos P, Nicholson W. Bacillus endospores isolated from granite: close molecular relationships to globally distributed Bacillus spp. from endolithic and extreme environments. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006; 72:2856-63. [PMID: 16597992 PMCID: PMC1449054 DOI: 10.1128/aem.72.4.2856-2863.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of an ongoing effort to catalog spore-forming bacterial populations in environments conducive to interplanetary transfer by natural impacts or by human spaceflight activities, spores of Bacillus spp. were isolated and characterized from the interior of near-subsurface granite rock collected from the Santa Catalina Mountains, AZ. Granite was found to contain approximately 500 cultivable Bacillus spores and approximately 10(4) total cultivable bacteria per gram. Many of the Bacillus isolates produced a previously unreported diffusible blue fluorescent compound. Two strains of eight tested exhibited increased spore UV resistance relative to a standard Bacillus subtilis UV biodosimetry strain. Fifty-six isolates were identified by repetitive extragenic palindromic PCR (rep-PCR) and 16S rRNA gene analysis as most closely related to B. megaterium (15 isolates), B. simplex (23 isolates), B. drentensis (6 isolates), B. niacini (7 isolates), and, likely, a new species related to B. barbaricus (5 isolates). Granite isolates were very closely related to a limited number of Bacillus spp. previously found to inhabit (i) globally distributed endolithic sites such as biodeteriorated murals, stone tombs, underground caverns, and rock concretions and (ii) extreme environments such as Antarctic soils, deep sea floor sediments, and spacecraft assembly facilities. Thus, it appears that the occurrence of Bacillus spp. in endolithic or extreme environments is not accidental but that these environments create unique niches excluding most Bacillus spp. but to which a limited number of Bacillus spp. are specifically adapted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Fajardo-Cavazos
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, Room 201-B, Space Life Sciences Laboratory, Building M6-1025/SLSL, University of Florida, Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kuhlman KR, Fusco WG, La Duc MT, Allenbach LB, Ball CL, Kuhlman GM, Anderson RC, Erickson IK, Stuecker T, Benardini J, Strap JL, Crawford RL. Diversity of microorganisms within rock varnish in the Whipple Mountains, California. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006; 72:1708-15. [PMID: 16461735 PMCID: PMC1392883 DOI: 10.1128/aem.72.2.1708-1715.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2005] [Accepted: 10/19/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rock varnish from Arizona's Whipple Mountains harbors a microbial community containing about 10(8) microorganisms g(-1) of varnish. Analyses of varnish phospholipid fatty acids and rRNA gene libraries reveal a community comprised of mostly Proteobacteria but also including Actinobacteria, eukaryota, and a few members of the Archaea. Rock varnish represents a significant niche for microbial colonization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K R Kuhlman
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91109, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
How radiation kills cells: Survival ofDeinococcus radioduransandShewanella oneidensisunder oxidative stress. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fmrre.2004.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
|
16
|
Deterioration of limestone walls in Jerusalem and marble monuments in Rome caused by cyanobacteria and cyanophilous lichens. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0265-3036(90)90004-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|