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Leasure CS, Grunenwald CM, Choby JE, Sauer JD, Skaar EP. Maintenance of heme homeostasis in Staphylococcus aureus through post-translational regulation of glutamyl-tRNA reductase. J Bacteriol 2023; 205:e0017123. [PMID: 37655914 PMCID: PMC10521356 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00171-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen responsible for a variety of infections including skin and soft tissue infections, endocarditis, and sepsis. The combination of increasing antibiotic resistance in this pathogen and the lack of an efficacious vaccine underscores the importance of understanding how S. aureus maintains metabolic homeostasis in a variety of environments, particularly during infection. Within the host, S. aureus must regulate cellular levels of the cofactor heme to support enzymatic activities without encountering heme toxicity. Glutamyl tRNA reductase (GtrR), the enzyme catalyzing the first committed step in heme synthesis, is an important regulatory node of heme synthesis in Bacteria, Archaea, and Plantae. In many organisms, heme status negatively regulates the abundance of GtrR, controlling flux through the heme synthesis pathway. We identified two residues within GtrR, H32 and R214, that are important for GtrR-heme binding. However, in strains expressing either GtrRH32A or GtrRR214A, heme homeostasis was not perturbed, suggesting an alternative mechanism of heme synthesis regulation occurs in S. aureus. In this regard, we report that heme synthesis is regulated through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of GtrR by the serine/threonine kinase Stk1 and the phosphatase Stp1, respectively. Taken together, these results suggest that the mechanisms governing staphylococcal heme synthesis integrate both the availability of heme and the growth status of the cell. IMPORTANCE Staphylococcus aureus represents a significant threat to human health. Heme is an iron-containing enzymatic cofactor that can be toxic at elevated levels. During infection, S. aureus must control heme levels to replicate and survive within the hostile host environment. We identified residues within a heme biosynthetic enzyme that are critical for heme binding in vitro; however, abrogation of heme binding is not sufficient to perturb heme homeostasis within S. aureus. This marks a divergence from previously reported mechanisms of heme-dependent regulation of the highly conserved enzyme glutamyl tRNA reductase (GtrR). Additionally, we link cell growth arrest to the modulation of heme levels through the post-translational regulation of GtrR by the kinase Stk1 and the phosphatase Stp1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine S. Leasure
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Caroline M. Grunenwald
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jacob E. Choby
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - John-Demian Sauer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Eric P. Skaar
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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Huang X, Wang P, Li T, Tian X, Guo W, Xu B, Huang G, Cai D, Zhou F, Zhang H, Lei H. Self-Assemblies Based on Traditional Medicine Berberine and Cinnamic Acid for Adhesion-Induced Inhibition Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:227-237. [PMID: 31829617 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b17722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
S. aureus is resistant to various first-line antibiotics, and seeking multifarious strategies aimed at effective control of antibiotic-resistant behavior is urgently needed. Here, we report a two-component directed self-assembly mode: the phytochemicals berberine and cinnamic acid can directly self-assemble into nanoparticles (NPs) displaying good bacteriostastic activity. Compared with several first-line antibiotics, the obtained nanostructures have a better inhibitory effect on multidrug-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and stronger ability for biofilm removal. These qualities are attributed to the fact that organic assemblies can first spontaneously adhere to the surface of the bacteria, infiltrate into the cell, and then lead to converging attack against MRSA; thereafter, multipath bactericidal mechanisms of NPs on MRSA are found by both transcriptomic analysis and quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction analysis. Moreover, when combined with spectral data and single crystal X-ray diffraction, the NPs' self-assembly mechanism governed by hydrogen bonds and π-π stacking interactions is clearly elucidated. These non-covalent interactions induce the NPs' formation of butterfly-like one-dimensional self-assembled units and finally layered three-dimensional spatial configuration. In addition, biocompatibility tests show that the NPs are nonhemolytic with little toxicity in vitro and in vivo. This directed self-assembly mode can offer a new perspective toward the design of biocompatible antimicrobial nanomedicines for clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemei Huang
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Penglong Wang
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Tong Li
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Xuehao Tian
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Wenbo Guo
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Bing Xu
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Guangrui Huang
- School of Life Science , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Desheng Cai
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Fei Zhou
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Hao Zhang
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
| | - Haimin Lei
- School of Chinese Pharmacy , Beijing University of Chinese Medicine , Beijing 102488 , P. R. China
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Wang L, Pan Y, Yuan ZH, Zhang H, Peng BY, Wang FF, Qian W. Two-Component Signaling System VgrRS Directly Senses Extracytoplasmic and Intracellular Iron to Control Bacterial Adaptation under Iron Depleted Stress. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1006133. [PMID: 28036380 PMCID: PMC5231390 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Both iron starvation and excess are detrimental to cellular life, especially for animal and plant pathogens since they always live in iron-limited environments produced by host immune responses. However, how organisms sense and respond to iron is incompletely understood. Herein, we reveal that in the phytopathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, VgrS (also named ColS) is a membrane-bound receptor histidine kinase that senses extracytoplasmic iron limitation in the periplasm, while its cognate response regulator, VgrR (ColR), detects intracellular iron excess. Under iron-depleted conditions, dissociation of Fe3+ from the periplasmic sensor region of VgrS activates the VgrS autophosphorylation and subsequent phosphotransfer to VgrR, an OmpR-family transcription factor that regulates bacterial responses to take up iron. VgrR-VgrS regulon and the consensus DNA binding motif of the transcription factor VgrR were dissected by comparative proteomic and ChIP-seq analyses, which revealed that in reacting to iron-depleted environments, VgrR directly or indirectly controls the expressions of hundreds of genes that are involved in various physiological cascades, especially those associated with iron-uptake. Among them, we demonstrated that the phosphorylated VgrR tightly represses the transcription of a special TonB-dependent receptor gene, tdvA. This regulation is a critical prerequisite for efficient iron uptake and bacterial virulence since activation of tdvA transcription is detrimental to these processes. When the intracellular iron accumulates, the VgrR-Fe2+ interaction dissociates not only the binding between VgrR and the tdvA promoter, but also the interaction between VgrR and VgrS. This relieves the repression in tdvA transcription to impede continuous iron uptake and avoids possible toxic effects of excessive iron accumulation. Our results revealed a signaling system that directly senses both extracytoplasmic and intracellular iron to modulate bacterial iron homeostasis. The biological function of iron is like a “double-edge sword” to all cellular life since iron starvation or iron excess leads to cell death. For animal and plant pathogens, they have to compete for iron with their hosts since iron-limitation generally is an immune response against microbial infection. However, how pathogens detect extracellular and intracellular iron concentrations remains unclear. Here we show that a plant bacterial pathogen employs a membrane-bound sensor histidine kinase, VgrS, to directly detect extracytoplasmic iron starvation and activate iron uptake accordingly. As a prerequisite, VgrS phosphorylates cognate VgrR to shut down the transcription of a downstream gene, tdvA, whose expression is harmful to absorb iron and bacterial virulence. However, as intracellular iron concentration increases, the ferrous iron binds to VgrR to release its repression on the tdvA transcription, which results in the block of continuous iron uptake to avoid toxic effect of the metal. Therefore, VgrS and VgrR detect extracytoplasmic and intracellular iron, respectively, and systematically modulate cellular homeostasis to promote bacterial survival in iron-depleted environments, such as in host plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhi-Hui Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Huan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bao-Yu Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fang-Fang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
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Sheldon JR, Heinrichs DE. Recent developments in understanding the iron acquisition strategies of gram positive pathogens. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2015; 39:592-630. [DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuv009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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Different sensitivity levels to norspermidine on biofilm formation in clinical and commensal Staphylococcus epidermidis strains. Microb Pathog 2015; 79:8-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2014.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Turlin E, Heuck G, Simões Brandão MI, Szili N, Mellin JR, Lange N, Wandersman C. Protoporphyrin (PPIX) efflux by the MacAB-TolC pump in Escherichia coli. Microbiologyopen 2014; 3:849-59. [PMID: 25257218 PMCID: PMC4263509 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Revised: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In most organisms, heme biosynthesis is strictly controlled so as to avoid heme and heme precursor accumulation, which is toxic. Escherichia coli regulates heme biosynthesis by a feedback loop involving heme-induced proteolytic cleavage of HemA, glutamyl-tRNA reductase, which is the first enzyme in the heme biosynthetic pathway. We show here that heme homeostasis can be disrupted by overproduction of YfeX, a cytoplasmic protein that captures iron from heme that we named deferrochelatase. We also show that it is disrupted by iron chelation, which reduces the intracellular iron concentration necessary for loading iron into protoporphyrin IX (PPIX, the immediate heme precursor). In both cases, we established that there is an increased PPIX concentration and we demonstrate that this compound is expelled by the MacAB-TolC pump, an efflux pump involved in E. coli and Salmonella for macrolide efflux. The E. coli macAB and tolC mutants accumulate PPIX and are sensitive to photo-inactivation. The MacAB-TolC pump is required for Salmonella typhimurium survival in macrophages. We propose that PPIX is an endogenous substrate of the MacAB-TolC pump in E. coli and S. typhimurium and that this compound is produced inside bacteria when natural heme homeostasis is disrupted by iron shortage, as happens when bacteria invade the mammalian host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyne Turlin
- Unité des Membranes Bactériennes, Département de Microbiologie, Institut Pasteur, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France
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Joubert L, Derré-Bobillot A, Gaudu P, Gruss A, Lechardeur D. HrtBA and menaquinones control haem homeostasis inLactococcus lactis. Mol Microbiol 2014; 93:823-33. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Joubert
- INRA; UMR1319 Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
- AgroParisTech; UMR Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
| | - Aurélie Derré-Bobillot
- INRA; UMR1319 Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
- AgroParisTech; UMR Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
| | - Philippe Gaudu
- INRA; UMR1319 Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
- AgroParisTech; UMR Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
| | - Alexandra Gruss
- INRA; UMR1319 Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
- AgroParisTech; UMR Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
| | - Delphine Lechardeur
- INRA; UMR1319 Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
- AgroParisTech; UMR Micalis; F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
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Ramón-Peréz ML, Diaz-Cedillo F, Ibarra JA, Torales-Cardeña A, Rodríguez-Martínez S, Jan-Roblero J, Cancino-Diaz ME, Cancino-Diaz JC. D-Amino acids inhibit biofilm formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis strains from ocular infections. J Med Microbiol 2014; 63:1369-1376. [PMID: 25001104 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.075796-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilm formation on medical and surgical devices is a major virulence determinant for Staphylococcus epidermidis. The bacterium S. epidermidis is able to produce biofilms on biotic and abiotic surfaces and is the cause of ocular infection (OI). Recent studies have shown that d-amino acids inhibit and disrupt biofilm formation in the prototype strains Bacillus subtilis NCBI3610 and Staphylococcus aureus SCO1. The effect of d-amino acids on S. epidermidis biofilm formation has yet to be tested for clinical or commensal isolates. S. epidermidis strains isolated from healthy skin (n = 3), conjunctiva (n = 9) and OI (n = 19) were treated with d-Leu, d-Tyr, d-Pro, d-Phe, d-Met or d-Ala and tested for biofilm formation. The presence of d-amino acids during biofilm formation resulted in a variety of patterns. Some strains were sensitive to all amino acids tested, while others were sensitive to one or more, and one strain was resistant to all of them when added individually; in this way d-Met inhibited most of the strains (26/31), followed by d-Phe (21/31). Additionally, the use of d-Met inhibited biofilm formation on a contact lens. The use of l-isomers caused no defect in biofilm formation in all strains tested. In contrast, when biofilms were already formed d-Met, d-Phe and d-Pro were able to disrupt it. In summary, here we demonstrated the inhibitory effect of d-amino acids on biofilm formation in S. epidermidis. Moreover, we showed, for the first time, that S. epidermidis clinical strains have a different sensitivity to these compounds during biofilm formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam L Ramón-Peréz
- Departments of Microbiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N. Col. Santo Tomas. Deleg. Miguel Hidalgo. C.P. 11340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Francisco Diaz-Cedillo
- Organic Chemistry, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N. Col. Santo Tomas. Deleg. Miguel Hidalgo. C.P. 11340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - J Antonio Ibarra
- Departments of Microbiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N. Col. Santo Tomas. Deleg. Miguel Hidalgo. C.P. 11340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Azael Torales-Cardeña
- Immunology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N. Col. Santo Tomas. Deleg. Miguel Hidalgo. C.P. 11340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Sandra Rodríguez-Martínez
- Immunology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N. Col. Santo Tomas. Deleg. Miguel Hidalgo. C.P. 11340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Janet Jan-Roblero
- Departments of Microbiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N. Col. Santo Tomas. Deleg. Miguel Hidalgo. C.P. 11340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Mario E Cancino-Diaz
- Immunology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N. Col. Santo Tomas. Deleg. Miguel Hidalgo. C.P. 11340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Juan C Cancino-Diaz
- Departments of Microbiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N. Col. Santo Tomas. Deleg. Miguel Hidalgo. C.P. 11340 Mexico City, Mexico
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França A, Carvalhais V, Maira-Litrán T, Vilanova M, Cerca N, Pier G. Alterations in the Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm transcriptome following interaction with whole human blood. Pathog Dis 2014; 70:444-8. [PMID: 24391077 DOI: 10.1111/2049-632x.12130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation on the surface of intravenous catheters is responsible for 22% of the cases of bloodstream infections, in patients in intensive care units in the USA. The ability of S. epidermidis to withstand the high bactericidal activity of human blood is therefore crucial for systemic dissemination. To identify the genes involved in the bacterium's survival, the transcriptome of S. epidermidis biofilms, upon contact with human blood, was assessed using an ex vivo model. Our results showed an increased transcription of genes involved in biosynthesis and metabolism of amino acids, small molecules, carboxylic and organic acids, and cellular ketones. One of the striking changes observed 4 h of S. epidermidis exposure to human blood was an increased expression of genes involved in iron utilization. This finding suggests that iron acquisition is an important event for S. epidermidis survival in human blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela França
- CEB-IBB, Centro de Engenharia Biológica, Instituto de Biotecnologia e Bioengenharia, Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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