Layered TiO2: PVK nano-composite thin films for photovoltaic applications. TiO2: PVK nano-composite thin films

State of the art of ultra-thin gold layers: formation fundamentals and applications

Fabrication of ultra-thin gold (Au) layers (UTGLs) has been regarded as the key technique to achieve applications with tunable optical response, flexible sensors and electronic devices. Various strategies have been developed to optimize the wetting process of Au, resulting in the formation of UTGLs at a minimum thickness. The related studies on UTGLs attracted huge attention in recent years. On the one hand, the growth processes of UTGLs on different substrates were in-depth probed by advanced in situ characterization techniques and the effects of optimization strategies on the growth of UTGLs were also revealed. On the other hand, based on the understanding of the growth behavior and the assistance of optimization strategies, various applications of UTGLs were realized based on optical/plasmon responses, surface-enhanced Raman scattering and as electrodes for various sensors and electronic devices, as well as being seed layers for thin film growth. In this focused review, both the fundamental and practical studies on UTGLs in the most recent years are elaborated in detail. The growth processes of UTGLs revealed by in situ characterization techniques, such as grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS), as well as the state of the art of UTGL-based applications, are reviewed.

Tunable photochemical properties of a covalently anchored and spatially confined organic polymer in a layered compound

A covalently anchored and spatially confined organic polymer was formed in a layered compound with a surface-modified layer. The resultant anchored and confined polymer showed tunable photochemical properties with the incorporation of a variety of guest molecules originating from the specific incorporation states. The layer surface of an inorganic layered compound was modified by an organic molecule with vinyl groups. The precursor layered composite accommodated N-vinylcarbazole (VCz), a vinyl monomer, in the hydrophobic interlayer space. The introduction of VCz induced the simultaneous exfoliation of the layered structures and copolymerization with vinyl groups on the layer surface. The covalently anchored and spatially confined poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVCz) with tunable photochemical properties was formed in a layered structure. The present study shows the versatile potential of polymers with anchored and confined states in surface-functionalized layered composites.

Influence of film thickness on the phase separation mechanism in ultrathin conducting polymer blend films

The film morphology of thin polymer blend films based on poly[(1-methoxy)-4-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-p-phenylenevinylene] (MEH-PPV) and poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) is probed as a function of film thickness. Blend films are prepared with spin-coating of polymer solutions with different concentrations on top of solid supports. The blending ratio of both conducting polymers is kept constant. The film and surface morphology is probed with grazing incidence ultrasmall-angle X-ray scattering (GIUSAXS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). A linear dependence between the film thickness and the averaged phase separation is found. In addition, X-ray reflectivity measurements show an enrichment of PVK at the substrate interface. UV/vis spectroscopy measurements indicate a linearly increasing amount of both homopolymers in the blend films for increasing film thicknesses. The generalized knowledge about the influence of the film thickness on the phase separation behavior in conducting polymer blend films is finally used to describe the phase separation formation during the spin-coating process, and the results are discussed in the framework of an adapted Flory-Huggins theory for rodlike polymers.

Intercalative poly(carbazole) precursor electropolymerization within hybrid nanostructured titanium oxide ultrathin films

A protocol for nanostructuring and electropolymerization of a hybrid semiconductor polycarbazole-titanium oxide ultrathin film is described. Ultrathin (<100 nm) films based on polycarbazole precursor polyelectrolytes and titanium oxide (TiOx) have been fabricated by combining the layer-by-layer (LbL) and surface sol-gel layering techniques. Film growth was followed and confirmed through UV-vis spectroscopy, ellipsometry and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). Subsequent anodic electrochemical oxidation of the carbazole pendant units afforded a conjugated polymer network (CPN) film within intercalating TiOx layers of cross-linked and π-conjugated carbazole units. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), UV-vis, and fluorescence spectroscopy measurements confirmed this process. The LbL-driven polyelectrolyte deposition process resulted in a quantified electrochemical response, proportional to the number of layers, while the TiOx acted as a dielectric spacer limiting electron transfer kinetics and attenuating energy transfer in fluorescence. Electro-optical properties were compared with other polycarbazole thin film materials with respect to bandgap energy (Eg). The straightforward protocol in film nanostructuring and barrier/dielectric properties of the inorganic oxide slab (denoted here as, TiOx) should enable applications in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), dielectric mirrors, planar waveguides, and photovoltaic devices for these hybrid ultrathin films.

Grazing incidence wide angle x-ray scattering at the wiggler beamline BW4 of HASYLAB

We present an upgrade of the available measurement techniques at the wiggler beamline BW4 of the Hamburger Synchrotronstrahlungslabor (HASYLAB) to grazing incidence wide angle x-ray scattering (GIWAXS). GIWAXS refers to an x-ray diffraction method, which, based on the measurement geometry, is perfectly suited for the investigation of the material crystallinity of surfaces and thin films. It is shown that the overall experimental GIWAXS setup employing a movable CCD-detector provides the capability of reliable and reproducible diffraction measurements in grazing incidence geometry. Furthermore, the potential usage of an additional detector enables the simultaneous or successive measurement of GIWAXS and grazing incidence small angle x-ray scattering (GISAXS). The new capability is illustrated by the microbeam GIWAXS measurement of a thin film of the conjugated polymer poly(3-octylthiophene) (P3OT). The investigation reveals the semicrystalline nature of the P3OT film by a clear identification of the wide angle scattering reflexes up to the third order in the [100]-direction as well as the first order in the [010]-direction. The corresponding microbeam GISAXS measurement on the present morphology complements the characterization yielding the complete sample information from subnanometer up to micrometer length scales.

Sponge-like structures for application in photovoltaics

Large surface areas at an interface between two different materials are desired in many research fields where the interaction between these materials significantly affects the performance of the physical system. This behaviour is illustrated on sponge-like structures, which assign for such a high surface area, and demonstrate the development from bulk material to thin films and a variety of applications. The focus is on sponge-like nanostructures consisting of a network of aggregated titania nanoparticles applied in hybrid structures for photovoltaics. Examples based on a sol-gel process for the preparation of titania nanostructures in thin films, mimicking the sponge morphology, are shown. In general, titania films are widely used in photovoltaics, contributing to a large surface area available for interfacial reactions, e.g. charge carrier transfer routes. Interpenetrating networks with dimensions matching exciton diffusion lengths in the polymer component of a hybrid organic-inorganic photovoltaic structure are highly desirable. To characterize the fabricated morphology, atomic force microscopy and field-emission scanning electron microscopy are employed in real space. The advanced scattering technique of grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering complements the characterization in reciprocal space. From the obtained results, the sponge-like morphology is verified, a physical description of the morphology with statistical relevance is constructed and the successful complete filling of the network is shown. According to this description, the presented sponge-like titania nanostructures are well suited for use in hybrid organic-inorganic solar cells.

In situ GISAXS study of gold film growth on conducting polymer films

The growth of a thin gold film on a conducting polymer surface from nucleation to formation of a continuous layer with a thickness of several nanometers is investigated in situ with grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). Time resolution is achieved by performing the experiment in cycles of gold deposition on poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) and subsequently recording the GISAXS data. The 2D GISAXS patterns are simulated, and morphological parameters of the gold film on PVK such as the cluster size, shape, and correlation distance are extracted. For the quantitative description of the cluster size evolution, scaling laws are applied. The time evolution of the cluster morphology is explained with a growth model, suggesting a cluster growth proceeding in four steps, each dominated by a characteristic kinetic process: nucleation, lateral growth, coarsening, and vertical growth. A very limited amount of 6.5 wt % gold is observed to be incorporated inside a 1.2-nm-thick enrichment layer in the PVK film.