Adding Fuel to the Collective Fire: Stereotype Threat, Solidarity, and Support for Change

We hypothesize a yet-unstudied effect of experiencing systemic stereotype threat on women's collective action efforts: igniting women's support for other women and motivation to improve organizational gender balance. Hypotheses are supported in two surveys (Study 1: N = 1,365 business school alumnae; Study 2: N = 386 women Master of Business Administration [MBA]), and four experiments (Studies 3-6; total N = 1,897 working women). Studies 1 and 2 demonstrate that experiencing stereotype threat is negatively associated with women's domain-relevant engagement (supporting extant work on the negative effects of stereotype threat), but positively associated with women's support and advocacy of gender balance. Studies 3 to 6 provide causal evidence that stereotype threat activation leads to greater attitudes and intentions to support gender balance, ruling out negative affect as an alternative explanation and identifying ingroup solidarity as a mechanism. We discuss implications for working women, women leaders, and organizations striving to empower their entire workforce through developing equitable and inclusive practices.

The White gaze in racial stereotype research: Sample bias and its consequences

Existing research on racial stereotypes predominantly relies upon White subjects, exploring their perceptions of Blacks and Asians. Do its findings generalize beyond Whites? To find out, we combined insights from the Stereotype Content Model and Gendered-race Theory, exploring the racial stereotypes of Whites, Blacks and Asians simultaneously as both perceivers and targets. In two studies involving White, Black and Asian Americans (Study 1, N = 702), and surveys in Australia, Japan, South Korea and China (Study 2, N = 6508), we found both similarities and differences in how racial groups perceive each other. Asians were consistently seen as more competent but less athletic, while Blacks were seen as more athletic but less competent. Whites fell between these poles. But each group differed in viewing their own race as warmer than other races, suggesting ingroup favoritism. This research demonstrates that diverse racial samples are needed for a less Eurocentric and more accurate understanding of racial stereotypes.

STEM ability perceptions, basic needs satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation in adolescents: The role of inclusive perceptions in self-determination

Current work suggests that basic psychological needs are related to higher intrinsic motivation, which in turn, can promote more positive academic outcomes. However, few studies have examined how perceptions around one's abilities in science, engineering, technology, and math (STEM) are related to intrinsic motivation and what role needs satisfaction plays in this association. This study assessed adolescents' (N = 285, 56.1% female, Mage = 15.76 years, SD = 1.24) STEM ability perceptions, basic needs satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation. A path analysis was used to examine the association between STEM ability perceptions, basic needs satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation in adolescents. Inclusive perceptions of the STEM abilities of historically underrepresented groups (i.e., girls and minoritized ethnicities) were positively associated with basic needs satisfaction and basic needs satisfaction was positively associated with intrinsic motivation. There was also a positive indirect effect from inclusive perceptions of STEM abilities to intrinsic motivation through basic needs satisfaction. These findings suggest that schools should focus on promoting inclusive perceptions in order to bolster adolescents' basic needs satisfaction, which could have carry-on effects on intrinsic motivation.

Negative Reactions to Positive Gender Stereotypes: Different Levels of Positivity Elicit Similar Negative Reactions

Positive stereotypes may elicit targets' negative reactions, but it is not well understood whether targets react differently to various levels of such stereotypes. Two studies examined targets' negative reactions to various levels of positive gender stereotypes. Chinese students were recruited as participants (N = 1204), who were randomly assigned to the somewhat, moderately, or extremely positive gender stereotype conditions or the control condition. Reactions to positive gender stereotypes were then measured. Results showed that both female and male participants who were exposed to positive gender stereotypes disliked the speaker stating such stereotypes more, experienced greater negative emotions, and perceived the speaker as more gender-prejudiced than those who were not exposed to such stereotypes. These negative reactions were more pronounced in female participants than in male participants. Furthermore, participants' negative reactions to different levels of positive gender stereotypes were similar, regardless of whether the stereotypes were somewhat, moderately, or extremely positive. These negative reactions elicited by positive gender stereotypes were mediated by both a sense of depersonalization and a sense of diminished autonomy. This research indicates positive gender stereotypes are like "sugar-coated bullets," appearing harmless ostensibly. However, even somewhat positive gender stereotypes may elicit targets' negative reactions, impairing interpersonal relations and perpetuating gender inequality under the radar.

An Asynchronous Chemistry-in-biology Intervention Improves Student Content Knowledge and Performance in Introductory Biology

Introductory biology is a gateway course for majors and other science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. Despite the importance of chemistry content knowledge for understanding biology, the relationship between chemistry knowledge and prior coursework and biology course performance is understudied. We used an opportunity gap framework to investigate the extent to which there were opportunity gaps in prior chemistry coursework and knowledge and associated these gaps with subsequent equity gaps in student performance on introductory biology assessments. We also developed, implemented, and assessed an asynchronous content-based intervention to support student learning and reduce equity gaps. We collected data from ∼1800 students enrolled in seven course sections of introductory biology, including two course sections prior to implementation of the intervention and five course sections with the intervention. We identified opportunity gaps in chemistry coursework that were associated with students' performance on their first introductory biology exam. The results from this study highlight the importance of addressing chemistry concepts early in a course with sufficient support for students and an understanding of opportunity gaps.

Negative Framing of COVID-19 Information Affects Older Adults' Memory Function

Stereotype threat occurs when negative stereotypes about one's group increase cognitive load, impairing functioning in line with the stereotype. Cognitive and neurological symptoms of COVID-19 may be salient and worrisome to older adults as these functions are key to independence. We examined whether presenting adverse age-related information about COVID-19 invokes stereotype threat and impacts cognitive performance on a subsequent task. Older adults (59+), recruited online, read either neutral or negative age-related COVID-19 information. Participants then completed a word recognition task. The threat group had significantly worse memory performance compared to the neutral group even after controlling for age and history of COVID-19 diagnosis. Simply reading information about COVID-19 may pose a threat to older adults' cognitive abilities. Our results highlight the far-reaching effects of the pandemic beyond experiencing symptoms of the disease and how the framing of health-related information can have negative consequences for older adults' cognition.

The complex relationships among self-acceptance, perceived social support, drug use stereotype threat, and subthreshold depression in people with substance use disorder: exploring the mediating and buffering effects

Introduction

Depression levels are significantly higher among people with substance use disorder (SUD) than in the general population; however, studies on the level of subthreshold depression in this population are scarce. Research shows a significant correlation between self-acceptance and depression, with social support playing a key role in the process of recovery and social reintegration for people with SUD. This study aimed to explore the effects of self-acceptance, perceived social support, and stereotype threat of people with SUD on their subthreshold depression, as well as potential mediating and buffering effects.

Methods

This study was conducted from January-March 2024. 1068 drug addicts (548 males and 520 females) were recruited in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. After signing informed consent, their psychometric data were obtained using the Self-acceptance Questionnaire (SAQ), Perceived Social Support Scale (PSSS), Drug Use Stereotype Threat Scale (DSTS) and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale(CES-D). Gender and group differences in relevant scale dimensions were explored. Linear regression models were used to assess the relationships between PSSS, SAQ, and DSTS scores and subthreshold depression in male and female participants. Bootstrap mediation effect tests were used to further test the mediation effect of drug use stereotype threat and perceived social support between self-acceptance and subthreshold depression. Line graphs were used to show the buffering effect of perceived social support on the relationship between self-acceptance and subthreshold depression in different groups.

Results

The results showed that,gender, HIV-positive or not, education and monthly income level affect subthreshold depression in patients with SUD. Negative correlation between self-acceptance and subthreshold depression among SUD patients. Furthermore, perceived social support and substance use stereotypes threatmediated the relationship between self-acceptance and subthreshold depression, respectively, forming a parallel mediating relationship. Results exploring the buffering effect of perceived social support by subgroup showed that the buffering effect of perceived social support on subthreshold depression was most pronounced in the HIV-negative and and female groups. Social support, group stereotypes discrimination affect the mental health of sud patients.

Discussion

Our study provides theoretical support for the alleviation of subthreshold depression among people with SUD, realizing that self-acceptance, perceived social support and reduction of drug use stereotype threat can be a psychoprotective factor for people with SUD.

When People Do Allyship: A Typology of Allyship Action

ACADEMIC ABSTRACT

Despite increased popular and academic interest, there is conceptual ambiguity about what allyship is and the forms it takes. Viewing allyship as a practice, we introduce the typology of allyship action which organizes the diversity of ways that advantaged individuals seek to support those who are disadvantaged. We characterize allyship actions as reactive (addressing bias when it occurs) and proactive (fostering positive outcomes such as feelings of inclusion, respect, and capacity), both of which can vary in level of analysis (i.e., targeting oneself, one or a few other individuals, or institutions). We use this framework to profile six productive yet largely independent bodies of social psychological literature on social action and directly compare relative benefits and constraints of different actions. We suggest several future directions for empirical research, using the typology of allyship to understand when, where, and how different forms of allyship might succeed.

PUBLIC ABSTRACT

Despite increased popular and academic interest in the word, people differ in what they believe allyship is and the forms it takes. Viewing allyship as a practice, we introduce a new way (the typology of allyship action) to describe how advantaged individuals seek to support those who are disadvantaged. We characterize allyship actions as reactive (addressing bias when it occurs) and proactive (increasing positive outcomes such as feelings of inclusion, respect, and capacity), both of which can vary in level (i.e., targeting oneself, one or a few other individuals, or institutions). We use this framework to profile six large yet mostly separate areas of social psychological research on social action and directly compare the relative benefits and limitations of different actions. We suggest several future directions for how the typology of allyship action can help us understand when, where, and how different forms of allyship might succeed.

Age-based stereotype threat effects: From the laboratory to the clinical setting

Age-Based Stereotype Threat (ABST) adversely affects older adults' memory performance by inducing anxiety and interfering thoughts related to negative stereotypes about aging and memory decline. While well-documented in laboratory settings, the relevance of ABST in real-life clinical contexts remains underexplored. This narrative review examines the effects of ABST and its implications for cognitive aging, emphasizing the importance of addressing ABST in clinical settings. We review key laboratory findings and the limited studies that simulate clinical environments, highlighting their methodological limitations. The review underscores the need for further research involving actual patients, tested within real clinical setting and using appropriate interventions to reduce ABST. Proactive interventions such as educational debriefing and expressive writing, are promising methods adapted to clinical settings. By enhancing our understanding and mitigation of ABST in clinical practice, we can improve the accuracy and reliability of neuropsychological assessments, leading to better diagnostic outcomes for older adults.

Context matters: Diagnosing and targeting local barriers to success at school

We trialed a novel method aimed at reducing educational inequalities in any given school by tailoring an intervention to address the specific local social, cultural, and psychological barriers that contribute to those inequalities. In Study 1 (N = 2070), we validated measures in a student survey of barriers experienced by students ages 11-16 years in two schools in England. We used a pilot version of these measures to identify two barriers that appeared to be contributing in both schools to poorer attendance and behavioral records of Black versus Asian students and of lower socioeconomic status (SES) students versus higher SES students. These barriers consisted of perceptions that (a) the schools were biased against certain groups of students and that there were negative stereotypes about certain groups of students, and (b) teachers and students did not come from similar backgrounds. In Study 2, which was pre-registered, we administered a brief tailored intervention to target these barriers in students ages 11-14 years in the same two schools the following year (N = 1070). The intervention, which aimed to induce values affirmation and reveal hidden teacher-student similarities, improved the attendance of low-SES students by 0.20 SD (p = .009) and reduced the gap with their peers by 60%. Exploratory analyses indicated that the improvement in attendance was larger for students who reported perceiving greater levels of bias and poorer teacher-student relationships at baseline. The impact of the intervention on the behavioral records of Black students (p = .089) and low-SES students (p = .293) was not significant. These qualified but encouraging findings provide a basis for developing practical ways for individual schools to improve outcomes for their historically disadvantaged students.

Dual pathways of aging stereotype threat at work: impacts on work behaviors of older workers

Aging stereotype threat is a significant issue in modern workplaces, affecting older workers' self-perceptions and work behaviors. Although research often highlights the negative impacts of aging stereotypes, the dual pathways by which these stereotypes influence negative and positive work behaviors remain underexplored. This study aims to address this gap by employing a dual mediation model, grounded in Uncertainty-Identity Theory and Psychological Reactance Theory, to explore the effects of aging stereotype threat on older workers' behaviors. Using structural equation modeling (SEM) with two-wave data from older employees in various industries, the study shows that aging stereotype threat significantly affects aging identity, which fully mediates its link to work withdrawal behaviors. In contrast, psychological reactance emerges as another mediator, leading to proactive work behaviors. The results also suggest that older workers with high self-efficacy exhibit a stronger relationship between stereotype threat and aging identity. This research adds to the literature by exploring how aging stereotype threat leads to both negative and positive behavioral outcomes. It provides valuable insights for organizations aiming to support older employees in the workplace.

Factors influencing the type of self-acceptance in drug addicts and the relationship with subthreshold depression: evidence based on latent profile analysis

OBJECTIVE

To study the heterogeneity and influencing factors of self-acceptance of drug addicts in compulsory isolation in 2 drug rehabilitation centers in Sichuan Province, and to analyze the effects of different types of self-acceptance on subthreshold depression in drug addicts, in order to provide useful references for improving their mental health.

METHODS

Self-acceptance Questionnaire (SAQ), Drug use Stereotype Threat Scale(DSTS) and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale(CES-D) were used to conduct a questionnaire survey in January 2024 on 1068 drug addicts in two compulsory isolation drug rehabilitation centers in Sichuan Province.

RESULTS

Drug addicts self-acceptance can be categorized into 5 potential categories; men were more likely than women to show lower self-acceptance in the 'low-low'(β = 0.285,OR = 0.381, p < 0.001),'low-high'(β = 0.331,OR = 0.383,p = 0.004), and'high-low'(β = 0.283,OR = 0.548, p = 0.033) groups compared to the ' high-high' group; drug addicts with an education level of elementary school and below were categorized into the'low -low ' group(β = 0.642,OR = 6.173, p = 0.005);HIV-negative drug addicts were more likely to show higher self-acceptance than positive patients(β = 0.418,OR = 2.427, p = 0.034)); the'low-low'group had the greatest likelihood of being alienated(β = 0.169,OR = 3.249, p < 0.001). The results of multiple linear regression showed that drug addicts in the' moderate-moderate 'group and'high-high 'group had significantly lower subthreshold depression than those in the'low-low 'group; the results of the Kruskal-Wallis Test showed that the'high -high 'group had the lowest level of subthreshold depression, and the'low -low ','low-high 'and'high-low 'groups had the highest mean ranks in different dimensions of subthreshold depression(P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Heterogeneity exists in drug addicts' self-acceptance, and gender, HIV-positive or not, education level, and drug use stereotype threat are factors influencing self-acceptance in compulsory isolated drug addicts. High self-appraisal-high self-acceptance had the lowest level of subthreshold depression in drug addicts, and the consistency of poor self-appraisal and self-acceptance also affected the level of subthreshold depression in drug addicts.

The Strengths of People in Low-SES Positions: An Identity-Reframing Intervention Improves Low-SES Students' Achievement Over One Semester

Students from low-socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds such as first-generation or low-income students are often portrayed as deficient, lacking in skills and potential to succeed at university. We hypothesized that such representations lead low-SES students to see their SES-identity as a barrier to success and impair achievement. If so, reframing low-SES students' identity as a source of strength may help them succeed. Testing this hypothesis in a highly scalable form, we developed an online low-SES-identity-reframing exercise. In Experiment 1 (N = 214), this exercise helped low-SES students to see their SES-identity more as a source of success and boosted their performance on an academic task by 13%. In Experiment 2, a large randomized-controlled intervention field experiment (N = 786), we implemented the identity-reframing intervention in a university's online learning program. This improved low-SES students' grades over the semester. Recognizing the strengths low-SES students bring to university can help students access these strengths and apply them to schooling.

Curriculum reform and stereotype threat in medical education: Implications for student well-being

PURPOSE

Altering the curriculum of a program can have negative repercussions for the student experience, including peer mentorships and interclass relationships. This study investigated the effect of curriculum reform on students' emotional and social well-being in a predoctoral dental program. We explored if any of these consequences could be related to stereotype threat.

METHODS

We utilized a quasi-experimental design with two different treatments, New Curriculum Treatment (New-CT, n = 44) and Past Curriculum Treatment (Past-CT, n = 43). Quantitative data were collected through surveys to assess students' perceptions of curriculum changes and their impacts on anxiety, confidence, and clinical performance. Qualitative data were gathered via semi-structured interviews to explore personal experiences of stereotype threat and its implications on peer relationships and mentorship dynamics.

RESULTS

The findings suggest significant effects of curriculum changes on interpersonal relationships. Past-CT viewed New-CT as overconfident, while New-CT felt heightened performance pressure. Thematic and interview analyses revealed deep-rooted tensions, with New-CT feeling mistrusted and Past-CT resenting New-CT's perceived accelerated competence. Stereotype threat was identified as a key factor worsening these inter-group tensions and affecting clinical performance and relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

Curriculum changes in dental education can significantly affect students' well-being, with stereotype threat playing a critical role in these dynamics. When making changes to the structure, sequencing, or content of a program, administrators need to be aware of the potential ramifications these changes could have on students' relationships with their peers.

Burnout is not associated with trainee performance on the Vascular Surgery In-Training Exam

OBJECTIVE

The Vascular Surgery In-Training Examination (VSITE) is a yearly exam evaluating vascular trainees' knowledge base. Although multiple studies have evaluated variables associated with exam outcomes, few have incorporated training program-specific metrics. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the impact of the learning environment and burnout on VSITE performance.

METHODS

Data was collected from a confidential, voluntary survey administered after the 2020 to 2022 VSITE as part of the SECOND Trial. VSITE scores were calculated as percent correct then standardized per the American Board of Surgery. Generalized estimating equations with robust standard errors and an independent correlation structure were used to evaluate trainee and program factors associated with exam outcomes. Analyses were further stratified by integrated and independent training paradigms.

RESULTS

A total of 1385 trainee responses with burnout data were collected over 3 years (408 in 2020, 459 in 2021, 498 in 2022). On average, 46% of responses reported at least weekly burnout symptoms. On unadjusted analysis, burnout symptoms correlated with a 14 point drop in VSITE score (95% confidence interval [CI], -24 to -4; P = .006). However, burnout was no longer significant after adjusted analysis. Instead, higher postgraduate year level, being in a relationship, identifying as male gender with or without kids, identifying as non-Hispanic white, larger programs, and having a sense of belonging within a program were associated with higher VSITE scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite high rates of burnout, trainees generally demonstrate resilience in gaining the medical knowledge necessary to pass the VSITE. Performance on standardized exams is associated with trainee and program characteristics, including availability of support systems and program belongingness.

Do gender stereotype threats have a spillover effect on motor tasks among children? A mixed-model design investigation

OBJECTIVES

The stereotype threat effect has captivated social and sports psychology researchers for over two decades. However, many questions remain unanswered. This research was designed to explore the spillover effects of stereotype threat in motor tasks.

DESIGN

A mixed model design with within-between-subjects was utilized, with soccer performance and throwing scores serving as the dependent variables.

METHOD

Forty-two 10-year-old girls without mental or physical disabilities participated in the study and were randomly assigned into two groups: stereotype threat (ST) and nullified stereotype threat (NST). After measuring baseline performance in throwing and soccer tasks, the participants in the ST group received soccer-based stereotype induction. Afterwards, they performed 20 trials of soccer shooting. Half an hour later, the children were asked to perform 10 throws with the non-dominant hand.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that inducing soccer-based stereotypes towards girls led to underperformance in soccer, however, this negative effect did not spill over onto subsequent task (i.e., throwing) which was unrelated to the induced stereotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Our finding regarding the stereotype threat spillover effect is novel and provides more insight into the range of effects of stereotype threat within the motor domain. The findings encourage the researcher to practice caution regarding the generalizability of the stereotype threat spillover effect, especially in motor tasks.

Perception of Residency Program Diversity Is Associated With Vulnerability to Race and Gender Stereotype Threat Among Minority and Female Orthopaedic Trainees

Introduction

Stereotype threat (ST) is a psychological phenomenon in which perceived fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one's identity group leads to impaired performance. Gender and racial ST has been described in various academic settings. However, it is prevalence in orthopaedic surgery, where women and minorities are underrepresented, has not been examined. This study analyzes the prevalence of ST among orthopaedic surgery residents and fellows.

Methods

US orthopaedic trainees completed a voluntary anonymous survey, which included demographics, perceived program diversity based on percentage of racial-ethnic and gender-diverse faculty and trainees, and a validated, modified version of the Stereotype Vulnerability Scale (SVS). Higher scores indicate greater ST vulnerability. ST prevalence was analyzed with descriptive statistics, and associations between program diversity, resident demographics, and ST vulnerability were compared using nonparametric tests.

Results

Of 1,127 orthopaedic trainees at 40 programs, 322 responded (response rate 28.6%). Twenty-five percent identified as female, and 26% identified as an underrepresented minority in medicine (i.e., Asian, Black, or Hispanic). Asian (12 points), Black (12.5 points), and Hispanic (13.5 points) trainees had significantly higher SVS scores than White trainees (9 points) (p = 0.0003; p < 0.0001; p = 0.0028, respectively). Black trainees at perceived racially nondiverse residencies had the highest mean SVS scores (16.4 ± 1.03 points), while White trainees at perceived racially nondiverse residencies had the lowest SVS scores (9.3 ± 0.3 points), p = 0.011. Women had significantly higher gender stereotype vulnerability than men (p < 0.0001) in both gender-diverse (17.9 ± 0.2 vs. 9.0 ± 0.3 points) and gender nondiverse residencies (16.4 ± 0.4 vs. 9.6 ± 0.2 points).

Conclusion

Minority and female orthopaedic trainees had higher ST vulnerability, especially in programs perceived as lacking racial or gender diversity. While perceived program diversity may offer some protection for minority and women trainees, women trainees still met the threshold for high vulnerability regardless of program gender diversity. Future strategies to mitigate ST should be explored in orthopaedic training.

Fighting the beat and winning: stereotype threat and White people's rhythmic performance

A commonly held stereotype about White people in the United States is that they do not have rhythm. Stereotype threat posits that targets in stereotyped domains run the risk of confirming stereotypes in contexts in which they may be evaluated. We examined whether White people experience stereotype threat in domains diagnostic of rhythmic ability. We predicted White people under stereotype threat would perform worse on a rhythm task and have higher domain disengagement relative to White participants in the control condition. White Americans (N =118, 81 women, Mage = 18.81, SD = 1.06) were either told a rhythmic video game task was diagnostic of their rhythmic ability or told the game was to help future game development (i.e. non-diagnostic of ability). We found that White people in the stereotype threat condition performed more poorly on the game than those in the control condition. Furthermore, they also had higher domain disengagement than those in control. Stereotype threat may impede White individuals' ability to perform actions requiring rhythmic ability (e.g. clapping on beat, dancing).

Stereotype Threat at Work: A Meta-Analysis

Stereotype threat refers to the concern of being judged based on stereotypes about one's social group. This preregistered meta-analysis examines the correlates of stereotype threat in the workplace (k = 61 independent samples, N = 40,134). Results showed that stereotype threat was positively related to exhaustion, identity separation, negative affect, turnover intentions, and behavioral coping, and negatively related to career aspirations, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job engagement, job performance, positive affect, self-efficacy, and work authenticity. In addition, moderator analyses for constructs represented in at least k = 10 samples in the focal analyses showed that relations did not differ for measures of stereotype threat and stigma consciousness. However, the negative relationships between stereotype threat and career aspirations, job satisfaction, and job engagement were stronger for older employees compared with female employees as the stereotyped group. Overall, the findings suggest that stereotype threat constitutes an important stressor in the workplace.

Warmer Individuals Get More Help: The Influence of Stereotypes and Empathy on Moral Decision-Making

The processing of moral decision-making is influenced by both cognitive and emotional systems, making it worth exploring exactly how each plays a role in the process of individual moral decision-making. In this study, 160 participants with either high or low empathy traits (80 each, as determined by the Interpersonal Response Index Inventory) completed a moral decision-making task regarding whether to help others (stereotyped as high warmth-high competence, high warmth-low competence, low warmth-high competence, low warmth-low competence) at the expense of themselves. The intent was to explore the influence of stereotypes and empathy traits on moral decision-making. The results showed that: (1) participants were more willing to help individuals with high warmth than those with high competence, showing a clear "primacy of warmth effect"; (2) this effect was weakened in participants with high empathy traits in comparison to those with low empathy traits, as their willingness to help individuals with low warmth was significantly higher than that of participants with low empathy traits. The results suggest that stereotypes about warmth and competence moderate altruistic tendencies in moral decision-making and that this moderation is more pronounced in individuals with low empathy traits than in those with high empathy traits.

Can nudges be leveraged to enhance diversity in organizations? A systematic review

In this article, we review and summarize key findings from a growing literature exploring how nudges can facilitate efforts to diversify organizations. Nudges are psychologically-informed interventions that change behavior without restricting choice or altering incentives. We focus on two types of nudges to enhance organizational diversity: (1) nudges that target organizational processes directly or the decision makers who oversee them to increase the diversity of those hired and promoted and (2) nudges that target the underrepresented candidates themselves to increase the diversity of those applying for organizational roles. We categorize nudges designed to enhance organizational diversity, both by their target and based on the psychology they leverage to improve outcomes for women and racial minorities.

Personnel selection systems and diversity

Personnel selection systems affect diversity because they are the way organizations choose who is hired. Research on personnel selection systems and diversity is reviewed, with a particular focus on racial/ethnic diversity. Topics covered include the interrelated concepts of adverse impact and subgroup mean differences, research on why mean differences exist, and which selection predictors (particularly, cognitive ability tests) are most likely to cause adverse impact due to these mean differences. The historical perspective that organizations face a dilemma due to cognitive ability tests having the greatest validity and largest racial/ethnic subgroup mean differences is reviewed. Additionally, recent research is covered that suggests the validity of cognitive ability tests has been substantially overestimated, which has significant implications for the "validity-diversity dilemma."

Sex differences persist in visuospatial mental rotation under 3D VR conditions

The classic Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotations Test (MRT) shows a male advantage for visuospatial rotation. However, MRTs that have been adapted for use with real or physical objects have found that sex differences are reduced or abolished. Previous work has also suggested that virtual 3D objects will eliminate sex differences, although this has not been demonstrated in a purely visuospatial paradigm without motor input. In the present study we sought to examine potential sex differences in mental rotation using a fully-immersive 3D VR adaptation of the original MRT that is purely visuospatial in nature. With unlimited time 23 females and 23 males completed a VR MRT designed to approximate the original Vandenberg and Kuse stimuli. Despite the immersive VR experience and lack of time pressure, we found a large male performance advantage in response accuracy, exceeding what has typically been reported for 2D MRTs. No sex differences were observed in response time. Thus, a male advantage in pure mental rotation for 2D stimuli can extend to 3D objects in VR, even when there are no time constraints.

Neighborhood ethnic composition and social identity threat: the mediating role of perceived discrimination

Ethnic proportions of neighborhoods are a "macro" measure of intergroup contact and can buffer or expose people of color to discrimination. Simultaneously, perceived discrimination can sensitize students of color to social identity threat in environments in which they are numerically underrepresented and negatively stereotyped. In the current research, we integrate these two lines of research to examine whether neighborhood ethnic composition - the percentage of Latinx residents in one's home community - predicts social identity threat for Latinx students attending college at a predominately White institution (PWI). In two studies, Latinx college students attending a PWI provided their 5-digit zip code and completed measures assessing their perceived discrimination and social identity threat. Across both studies, neighborhood ethnic composition (greater percentage of Latinx residents) was associated with greater social identity threat and this association was mediated by greater perceived discrimination. These studies advance research on neighborhood ethnic composition and social identity threat.

Gender Differences in Climbing up the Ladder: Why Experience Closes the Ambition Gender Gap

Women are unequally represented in the highest positions in society. Beyond discrimination and bias, women are missing from the top because they are less likely to pursue high-ranking opportunities. We propose that experience is a critical moderator of gender differences in pursuing leadership opportunities, with low-experience women being particularly unlikely to seek higher level positions. We used field analyses of 96 years of U.S. senator and governor elections to examine male and female politicians' propensity to run for higher political offices. As predicted, among those with little political experience, women were less likely than men to run for higher office, but experience closed this gender gap. A preregistered experiment among U.S.-based adults replicated the field findings and revealed that it was the increased self-confidence of experienced women that reduced the gender gap. The findings suggest experience, and the self-confidence that comes with it, is one lever for closing the gender gap in seeking to climb professional hierarchies.

Emphasizing the Communal Demands of a Leader Role Makes Job Interviews Less Stressful for Women But Not More Successful

The cultural construal of leadership as masculine impedes women's attainment of leader roles. This research examined whether adding feminine demands to a leader role relieved the greater stress experienced by women than men in a job interview for a leadership position and considered the processes that mediated women's less favourable interview outcomes. In a hiring simulation, management students (N = 209; 112 women, 97 men) interviewed for a leader role framed by either stereotypically feminine or masculine role requirements. As shown by the stress biomarker salivary cortisol, the feminine role framing alleviated women's, but not men's, physiological stress response during the interview. However, under both masculine and feminine role framing, women, compared with men, reported lesser fit, expected poorer interview performance, appraised greater threat relative to challenge, and evaluated their performance less favourably, as did external raters. An additional vignette study (N = 305; 189 women, 111 men, 5 diverse) found that the feminine role framing increased the leader role's communal demands but still conveyed strong agentic demands not different from those of the masculine role. In conclusion, although a feminine role framing alleviated women's physiological stress response, it did not change their less favourable outcomes, as indicated by participants' self-reports and others' reports.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11199-024-01509-7.

The gender achievement gap in grades and standardised tests-what accounts for gender inequality?

We studied the gender achievement gap in grades and standardised test scores in Finland, where the gender differences are largest among OECD countries. We compared the gender achievement gap in standardised test scores from PISA surveys and grades from high-quality school registers in literacy. Furthermore, we analysed how grades differ from standardised test scores by family background and students' SES composition of the schools. By using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method, we explored how different characteristics between girls and boys explain gender differences in grading. Our findings indicate that boys' grades were lower than can be expected based on standardised test scores. The gender gap in grades was explained by boys' lower reading interests, effort put into schoolwork, and conscientiousness on homework. However, even adjusting for schooling characteristics and competence, boys have lower grades than test scores in schools that have low SES student composition.

School belonging mediates the longitudinal effects of racial/ethnic identity on academic achievement and emotional well-being among Black and Latinx adolescents

Social Identity Theory proposes that a positive in-group social identification fosters students' academic motivation and psychological well-being. The present study, grounded in Social Identity Theory, investigated the roles of racial/ethnicity identity (REI) in the development of school adjustment among Black and Latinx youth as well as the psychological mechanisms underlying these longitudinal associations. We hypothesized that REI would positively predict the development of academic achievement and emotional symptoms. In addition, we hypothesized that the development of school belonging would mediate the predictive effects of REI on the growth of academic achievement and emotional symptoms. Participants were 475 (n = 182 Black, 48.9% female; 293 Latinx, 47.8% female) students in Grades 7-9. Students self-reported their REI, school belonging, and emotional symptoms. Academic achievement was assessed using standardized achievement test scores. The longitudinal mediation models indicated that REI indirectly predicted the development of academic achievement and emotional symptoms through students' sense of school belonging. Specifically, higher REI embedded achievement and lower REI awareness of racism predicted higher school belonging in Grade 7. Higher Grade 7 school belonging in turn predicted faster academic growth in Grade 7 to Grade 9 as well as lower emotional symptoms in Grade 7. In addition, the three dimensions of REI also directly predicted the growth of academic achievement and emotional symptoms in Grades 7-9. The mediated effects were smaller in size than the direct effects. These findings highlight the importance of fostering positive REI and a strong sense of school belonging in promoting school adjustment among racial/ethnic minoritized, academically at-risk youth.

Do Performance Goals and Fixed Mindset Explicate the Relations Between Stereotype Threat and Achievement? Examining Differences Between Racially Marginalized and White Students in STEM

This study examined whether performance goal orientations and mindset beliefs explicate the negative relation of ethnic stereotype threat with achievement and whether these processes vary depending on students' membership in a historically minoritized group. Multigroup analyses of undergraduate chemistry students (N = 1,376) indicated that perceived ethnic stereotype threat was associated with lower achievement regardless of whether students were from underrepresented minority groups (URM). For URM students, compared to White students, ethnic stereotype threat more strongly predicted performance-avoidance goals. Further, fixed mindset beliefs moderated the relation of ethnic stereotype threat with performance goals for White students only. The relations of stereotype threat with performance goals were stronger for White students with a greater fixed mindset. Findings imply that while ethnic stereotype threat has the potential to detrimentally impact both URM and White students, motivational beliefs may exert somewhat distinct influences within each group, shaping the outcomes of stereotype threat.

Virtually isolated: social identity threat predicts social approach motivation via sense of belonging in computer-supported collaborative learning

Collaboration improves multiple academic and social outcomes. Accordingly, computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) can be beneficial in distance education contexts to overcome the issues specific to online learning (e.g., underperformance, low identification with university). Distance universities often attract a substantial number of non-traditional students (e.g., students with disability, students with migration background). Despite their representation, non-traditional students face negative stereotypes and associated social consequences, including social identity threat, diminished sense of belonging, and less motivation for social interactions. In the context of online learning, where there is little individuating information, social categories like socio-demographic group memberships become salient, activating stereotypes. Consequently, socio-demographic group memberships can have detrimental consequences for the integration of non-traditional students. The purpose of the present study was to (a) determine the extent of social identity threat for students in higher distance education, (b) explore the social consequences of this threat in the same context, (c) validate these findings through longitudinal analyses embedded in a CSCL task, and (d) use learning analytics to test behavioral outcomes. In a longitudinal study with three measurement occasions over 8 weeks (N = 1,210), we conducted path analyses for cross-sectional associations and Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Models for longitudinal predictions. The results showed that non-traditional students mostly reported higher social identity threat than traditional students. While the expected longitudinal within-person effects could not be demonstrated, we found stable between-person effects: students who reported higher levels of social identity threat also reported lower sense of belonging and lower social approach motivation. Exploratory analyses of actual online collaboration during CSCL offer potential avenues for future research. We conclude that social identity threat and its social consequences play an important role in higher distance education and should therefore be considered for successful CSCL.

Addressing Bias in the Occupational Therapy Admissions Process

This study investigated the impact of a workshop in reducing unconscious bias in admissions committee members of an occupational therapy program to determine if workshop participation increased the number of underrepresented students in the program. A convenience sample of 50 committee members was used. A Wilcoxon matched pairs signed rank test indicated a significant increase in the post-test survey question scores. A chi-square test of independence revealed a significant increase in the number of students in the program from underrepresented groups. These results suggest that an online workshop can reduce perceived bias and increase diversity in an occupational therapy program.

A Special Issue Introduction: The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence

What makes someone intelligent [...].

Age-based stereotype threat effects on dynamic balance in healthy older adults

Introduction

Stereotype threat can lead older adults to perceive their experiences in a biased manner, giving rise to interfering thoughts and negative emotions that generate stress and anxiety. Negative beliefs about aging may serve as an additional factor that increases the need for attentional demand, potentially resulting in a performance level below their actual capabilities. In the present study, we asked whether negative aging stereotypes influence a dynamic balance task and explored the means to counteract them in healthy elderly participants.

Methods

The performance of balance was compared in two groups of participants aged 65 to 75 years (n = 22) under stereotype threat or reduced-threat situation. Balance abilities were tested under dynamic conditions, requiring participants to maintain balance on a moving platform and using a gradient of difficulty (with eyes open or closed, without or with foam). Postural performance was evaluated by means of posturographic evaluation of the center of pressure displacement and motion analysis. Additionally, we investigated the effects of stereotype threat on a preferred walking speed task and on the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test.

Results

Participants under stereotype threat showed poorer balance, particularly in challenging conditions (eyes closed, on foam), with less effective body segments stabilization. Their postural stabilization on foam was worse compared to a solid surface. Conversely, those in the reduced threat condition maintained better body segment stabilization across all conditions, indicating consistent postural control regardless of the presence of foam. Stereotype threat did not affect preferred walking speed or the time to complete the "Time Up and Go" test.

Discussion-conclusion

This study provides the first description of age-based stereotype threat effects on a dynamic balance task and how to counteract them in healthy older adults. We suggest that the decrease in postural performance observed in participants exposed to stereotype threat can be attributed to a split in attentional focus between negative intrusive thoughts and the attention needed for maintaining balance. These findings open new perspectives on how to overcome negative expectations when evaluating and training physical abilities, thereby contributing to fall prevention among older adults.

Protocol for a meta-analysis of stereotype threat in African Americans

Stereotype threat is a well-known construct in psychology wherein individuals who belong to a negatively stereotyped demographic group underperform on cognitive or academic tasks due to the detrimental effects of a stereotype. Many psychologists have suggested that stereotype threat may be one of the reasons that some demographic groups are underrepresented in advanced academic programs and STEM fields. However, others have raised concerns about the quality of the stereotype threat research, suggesting that its apparent effects are inflated and that the phenomenon may be an illusion of questionable research practices and publication bias. The purpose of this proposed meta-analysis is to evaluate the existence of stereotype threat by (1) identifying the average effect size of stereotype threat studies in different types of studies, (2), investigating whether publication bias and p-hacking are present in the empirical research on stereotype threat, (3) testing for the influence of theoretical and methodological moderators, (4) assessing the overall quality of the research on stereotype threat, (5) and identifying the average effect in the methodologically strongest studies. This meta-analysis will be limited to studies that report data from African Americans because this population is a theoretically important group in stereotype threat research, and the size of score gaps between the African American and non-stereotyped populations in the United States should make the stereotype threat effect easiest to detect.

Adding injury to insult: Unfair treatment at work and occupational injury among hospital patient-care workers

BACKGROUND

Hospital patient-care workers have high occupational injury rates. While physical hazards within hospital work environments are established determinants of injury, social exposures may also contribute. This study examined how reports of unfair treatment at work, a dimension of work-related experiences of discrimination, were associated with injury among hospital-based patient-care workers.

METHODS

We used data from the Boston Hospital Workers Health Study, a longitudinal cohort of nurses and nursing assistants at two Boston-area hospitals. In 2018, we conducted a worker survey asking about three types of unfair treatment at work and occupational injuries during the past year. We used mixed-effects logistic regression models to evaluate associations between specific types, total load, and high-frequency exposure of unfair treatment with injury, adjusting for age, gender, race and ethnicity, job title, and unit type.

RESULTS

Among 1001 respondents, 21% reported being humiliated in front of others at work, 28% reported being watched more closely than other workers, and 47% reported having to work twice as hard as others for the same treatment. For each type of unfair treatment, we observed a monotonic relationship with occupational injury wherein increasing frequency of exposure was associated with increased odds of injury. We also observed monotonic relationships between total load and high-frequency exposure to unfair treatment and odds of injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Work-related unfair treatment is associated with injury among hospital workers. Programs and policies that focus on preventing unfair treatment may lessen injury burden in hospital workers.

The Role of Drill Instructors and Gender Integration at Recruit Training: Examining Intersections of Gender and Integration in the Recruit Training Environment

INTRODUCTION

Drill instructors (DIs) are responsible for executing their Services' recruit training programs and for training recruits. DIs assume a variety of roles, including teaching and developing practical skills and knowledge, mentoring, modeling appropriate behavior and attitudes, motivating recruits for success during and after recruit training, applying and instilling discipline, and ensuring the safety and welfare of recruits. This article examines two major research questions at the intersection of gender, gender-integrated training, and the DI role: (1) What differences exist in how DIs experience their role by gender? and (2) how does gender-integrated recruit training affect DIs' approach to training?

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This article draws from 87 semistructured interviews conducted with Service leaders, training cadre, and DIs in service of a broader Marine Corps interdisciplinary study on gender integration at recruit training. Interviews were conducted virtually and in-person with Marine Corps, Army, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard personnel from June to November 2021. Each interview was coded with initial and secondary codes developed through a flexible coding approach. Data were analyzed across and within relevant categories such as gender and Service to identify themes and patterns.

RESULTS

Although the DI role was universally described as demanding and difficult, unique challenges for women consistently emerged from the data. The top reported challenges faced by female DIs were personnel shortages, work and family conflict, culture-driven sexism in the training environment from male peers and recruits, and pressure to excel above and beyond their male peers. In recruit training, DIs are responsible for executing gender-integrated practices. Service leaders, training cadre, and DIs described how gender integration practices affect their approach to the role and implementation of training, including addressing and dismantling sexism, shutting down recruit romantic relationships, training all recruits in an equal manner, knowing gender-specific grooming standards, increasing communication among DIs, and working with mixed-gender DI teams.

CONCLUSIONS

Female DIs face additional challenges in and outside the role compared with their male peers, and some of these challenges are preventable. Staffing and personnel issues plague the female DI population and are a persistent and pervasive challenge to gender integration efforts. Women are a necessary and highly desirable population to fill the DI role, particularly as Services aim to expose recruits to leaders of both genders during their critical first training experience. DIs play an important role in ensuring the successful completion of recruit training, ultimately helping to build the future leaders of the military. The success of gender integration efforts depends on DIs' intentional approach to the process. Future research can build on this work by expanding the scope to other military training environments (beyond recruit training) and examining how DIs' own sociodemographic positions (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation) inform their perspective on and approach to equity in the training environment.

Diabetes distress in urban Black youth with type 1 diabetes and their caregivers: associations with glycemic control, depression, and health behaviors

OBJECTIVES

Adolescents with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and their caregivers endorse high diabetes distress (DD). Limited studies have documented the impact of DD on Black youth. The aims of the present study were to (1) describe DD among a sample of Black adolescents with T1D and their caregivers, (2) compare their DD levels with published normative samples, and (3) determine how DD relates to glycemic outcomes, diabetes self-management, parental monitoring of diabetes, and youth depressive symptoms.

METHODS

Baseline data from a multicenter clinical trial were used. Participants (N = 155) were recruited from 7 Midwestern pediatric diabetes clinics. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and measures of DD, parental monitoring of diabetes care, youth depression and diabetes management behaviors were obtained. The sample was split into (1) adolescents (ages 13-14; N = 95) and (2) preadolescents (ages 10-12; N = 60). Analyses utilized Cohen's d effect sizes, Pearson correlations, t-tests, and multiple regression.

RESULTS

DD levels in youth and caregivers were high, with 45%-58% exceeding either clinical cutoff scores or validation study sample means. Higher DD in youth and caregivers was associated with higher HbA1c, lower diabetes self-management, and elevated depressive symptoms, but not with parental monitoring of diabetes management.

CONCLUSIONS

Screening for DD in Black youth with T1D and caregivers is recommended, as are culturally informed interventions that can reduce distress levels and lead to improved health outcomes. More research is needed on how systemic inequities contribute to higher DD in Black youth and the strategies/policy changes needed to reduce these inequities.

Assessing the benefits of an online prematriculation anatomy workshop on knowledge acquisition and anatomy competency in a Doctor of Physical Therapy program

Preparing students for the transition to graduate-level education with greater learning demands in a condensed time frame is a challenging process for health professions educators and incoming students. Prematriculation programs offer a solution for exposing students to the foundational sciences in preparation for the academic rigor of a doctoral program. This retrospective study assessed whether incoming students enrolled across 3 yr of a 2-day online anatomy workshop, offered in July and August before the start of their first semester resulted in improved anatomy knowledge. Whether this acquired knowledge translated to improved anatomy outcomes in the first semester of a Doctor of Physical Therapy program was also assessed, while also accounting for variables of gender, ethnicity, and grade-point average. Knowledge acquired during both days of the workshop resulted in statistically significant improvements in anatomy postquiz scores compared to the baseline prequiz (P < 0.001). Multivariate regression analyses demonstrated statistically significant relationships between the first-semester anatomy practical score and workshop participation (P = 0.04) as well as a predictive value of gender (P = 0.01). Evaluating a timing effect on the predictive value of the online anatomy workshop demonstrated statistically significant effects of the prematriculation workshop on both first-semester anatomy practicals for August (P = 0.03 for practical 1; P = 0.04 for practical 2) but not July workshop participants. Findings from this study support the utility of an online prematriculation anatomy workshop to prepare students for graduate-level anatomy learning expectations in a doctoral allied health program.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This paper presents the findings of a retrospective study examining the effectiveness of an online prematriculation anatomy workshop on knowledge acquisition and first-semester anatomy competency following the success of a previously offered peer-led onsite workshop. To our knowledge, this is the first report of an online prematriculation program that successfully introduces graduate-level learning expectations and access to anatomical resources leading to improved anatomy competency in an allied health professional program.

Effects of Stereotype Threat on Women's Leadership Aspirations and Affective Responses: The Role of Stigma Consciousness

This paper aims to investigate the role of stereotype threat and the moderating role of gender stigma consciousness on women's leadership aspiration, leadership career goal, social self-esteem, and negative affect across two experimental studies in Türkiye. We expected the detrimental effects of streotype threat to be experienced by those with high gender stigma consciousness. The first study, involving 130 female undergraduates (Mage = 20.7, SD = 4.4), presented implicit stereotype threat and showed that the threat increased the interest of team membership and women low in stigma consciousness reported higher leadership career goals than those high in stigma consciousness. The second study, conducted with 90 female undergraduates (Mage = 20.6, SD = 1.6), presented explicit stereotype threat and showed that the explicit threat had negative effect on leadership aspiration, and women high in stigma consciousness felt more negative affect and less social self-esteem due to threat than those who were low. The present research contributes to the women's leadership literature by identifying for the first time the role of stigma consciousness in the motivational and affective consequences of stereotype threat.

Physician-Patient Interaction Quality Mediates the Association Between HIV-Related Stigma and HIV-Prevention Behaviors Among Sexual Minority Men in Zambia

HIV-related stigma is a major challenge to HIV prevention for sexual minority men (SMM) in Zambia, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms. This study aimed to investigate whether physician-patient interaction quality mediates the relationship between HIV-related stigma and HIV-prevention behaviors among SMM. Data were collected using a cross-sectional survey from 194 SMM (aged: mean = 24.08, SD = 4.27) across four districts in Zambia between February and November 2021. Participants were asked about their demographic characteristics, HIV-related stigma, SMM-related stigma, physician-patient interaction quality, HIV-testing intention, and use of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Path analysis was used to test the mediation effect of physician-patient interaction quality in the associations of HIV-related stigma/SMM-related stigma with HIV-testing intention and current PrEP use. Higher self-reported physician-patient interaction quality was negatively associated with HIV-related stigma (β = - 0.444, z = - 2.223, p < 0.05), and positively associated with HIV-testing intention (β = 0.039, z = 5.121, p < 0.001) and current PrEP use (β = 0.008, z = 2.723, p < 0.01). HIV-related stigma among SMM had a significant and negative indirect effect on HIV-testing intention (β = - 0.017, z = - 2.006, p < 0.05), and current PrEP use (β = - 0.004, z = - 2.009, p < 0.05) through physician-patient interaction quality. Contrary to our expectations, SMM-related stigma did not have a significant and negative indirect effect on HIV prevention behaviors through physician-patient interaction quality. Health interventions need to improve physician-patient interaction quality by offering healthcare provider training, targeting HIV-related stigma in healthcare settings, and devising inclusive healthcare policies to promote HIV prevention efforts.

Celebrating organizational history triggers social identity threat among Black Americans

Many mainstream organizations celebrate their historical successes. In their history, however, they often marginalized racial minorities, women, and other underrepresented groups. We suggest that when organizations celebrate their histories, even without mentioning historical marginalization, they can undermine belonging and intentions to join the organization among historically marginalized groups. Four experiments demonstrate that Black participants who were exposed to an organization that celebrated their history versus the present showed reduced belonging and intentions to participate in the organization. These effects were mediated by expectations of biased treatment in the organization. Further, when organizations had a history of Black people in power, celebrating history was no longer threatening, highlighting that the negative effects of celebrating history are most likely when organizations are or are assumed to be majority-White and have treated Black Americans poorly. Taken together, these findings suggest that emphasizing organizational history can be a source of social identity threat among Black Americans.

Overcoming age differences in memory retrieval by reducing stereotype threat

Very little is known about whether and how socioemotional factors influence age differences in associative memory. Here, we tested the hypothesis that reducing the threat induced by age-based stereotypes can reduce age differences in learning performance and strategy. Using an associative learning task, we replicated the classic finding of age differences under a high-threat condition: older adults had longer reaction times than younger adults and were much more reluctant to use memory retrieval. However, age differences were greatly diminished under a low-threat condition. These findings demonstrate that memory retrieval is an ability not entirely lost as individuals age because merely reducing stereotype threat helped restoring it. We conclude that socioemotional factors, such as stereotype threat, should be considered when evaluating younger and older adults' memory performance.

Why We Need to Pay Attention to Stereotype Threat

Although "implicit bias" has been a major focus in diversity, equity, inclusion, and antiracism educational efforts, less attention has been directed to "stereotype threat." This commentary aimed to bring increased awareness to the pharmacy academy about stereotype threat phenomena as well as explore its impact in the areas of education, with a specific focus on health professions education. In addition, potential and practical strategies are discussed to mitigate its occurrence in pharmacy education.

The Effects of the Flint water crisis on the educational outcomes of school-age children

In 2014, the municipal water source in Flint, Michigan was switched, causing lead from aging pipes to leach into the city's drinking water. While lead exposure in Flint children increased modestly on average, some children were exposed to high lead levels. Surveys of Flint residents show the water crisis was also associated with increased levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. We use Michigan's administrative education data and utilize synthetic control methods to examine the impact of the crisis on Flint's school-age children. We find decreases in math achievement and increases in special needs classification, even among children living in homes with copper (rather than lead) water service lines. Low socioeconomic status students and younger students experienced the largest effects on math achievement, and boys experienced the largest effects on special needs classification. Our results point toward the broad negative effects of the crisis on children and suggest that existing estimates may substantially underestimate the overall societal cost of the crisis.

'We are not the virus'-Experiences of racism among East & Southeast Asian heritage young people in London during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic

The spread of COVID-19 was accompanied by news reports of surging racism, xenophobia, and hate crime all over the Global North targeting individuals of East and Southeast Asian (ESEA) descent. However, little empirical research has documented the impacts of COVID-19 on child and adolescent ESEAs. We describe and analyse the mental health experiences of young ESEA Londoners during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. We purposively recruited 23 young people (aged 9-20) of ESEA heritage through social media and existing ESEA networks and analysed transcripts using thematic analysis. Participants experienced distress from being exposed to multiple forms of racism ranging from strangers on the street avoiding or harassing them to classmates at school or university making racist 'jokes', comments or 'banter'. Participants worried about hate crimes reported in news media and experienced anxiety from seeing pervasive racist content in online social media. Some participants responded by physically isolating themselves at home for long periods, whilst others chose to participate in activism, providing a sense of agency. Action by parents and school authorities was reported to help prevent further bullying, but respondents did not always feel able to approach these for help. Our findings put into focus the strain on young ESEA Londoners' mental health caused by COVID-related racism and jar against simplified depictions of metropolitan places, such as London, as centres of cosmopolitanism and tolerance. To promote the emotional wellbeing of young ESEAs, future policy should facilitate action by schools and universities against anti-ESEA racism and support ESEA community-building efforts to enhance resilience in the face of racism.

Defining and 'diagnosing' aphantasia: Condition or individual difference?

Research into the newly-coined 'condition' of 'aphantasia', an individual difference involving the self-reported absence of voluntary visual imagery, has taken off in recent years, and more and more people are 'self-diagnosing' as aphantasic. Yet, there is no consensus on whether aphantasia should really be described as a 'condition', and there is no battery of psychometric instruments to detect or 'diagnose' aphantasia. Instead, researchers currently rely on the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) to 'diagnose' aphantasia. We review here fundamental and methodological problems affecting aphantasia research stemming from an inadequate focus on how we should define aphantasia, whether aphantasia is a pathological condition, and the extensive use of VVIQ as a 'diagnostic test' for aphantasia. Firstly, we draw attention to 'literature blindness' for visual imagery research from the 1960s-1990s concerning individual differences in visual imagery vividness. Secondly, despite aphantasia being defined as a 'condition' where voluntary visual imagery is absent as indicated by the lowest score on the VVIQ, aphantasia studies inconsistently employ samples comprised of a mixture of participants with no visual imagery and low visual imagery, and we argue that this hinders the uncovering of the underlying cause of aphantasia. Thirdly, the scores used to designate the boundary between aphantasia and non-aphantasia are arbitrary and differ between studies, compromising the possibility for cross-study comparison of results. Fourthly, the problems of 'diagnosing' aphantasia are not limited to the academic sphere, as one can 'self-diagnose' online, for example by using the variant-VVIQ on the Aphantasia Network website. However, the variant-VVIQ departs from the original in ways likely to impact validity and accuracy, which could lead people to falsely believe they have been 'diagnosed' with aphantasia by a scientifically-validated measure. Fifthly, we discuss the hypothesis that people who believe they have been 'diagnosed' with aphantasia might be vulnerable to health anxiety, distress, and stigma. We conclude with a discussion about some fundamental aspects of how to classify a disorder, and suggest the need for a new psychometric measure of aphantasia.

The Road to Mastery: An Analysis of Goal Orientation in the Transition from Medical School to Surgical Residency

PURPOSE

Goal orientation (GO) is a psychological construct which describes an individual's intrinsic motivation for learning in terms of mastery and performance goals. Mastery goals relate to the intrinsic drive to learn for the sake of learning, while performance goals are oriented toward validating one's own competence by seeking favorable judgments (Performance Approach; PAP) or avoiding negative judgments (Performance Avoid; PAV). Having a mastery GO has been shown to improve overall job satisfaction as well as optimize job performance. We therefore aimed to examine how GO changes during the transition to residency, which is a notoriously challenging period in medical education, and identify interventions that can increase mastery of GO.

METHODS

The validated Goal Orientation in Surgical Trainees (GO-ST) instrument was administered to incoming surgical interns (n = 19) during orientation in a single, university-based program and again at 3 months into the internship. The perceived stress scale (PSS) was also administered at 3 months. Focus groups were used to assess resident perceptions and identify interventions at the end of the 3-month period.

RESULTS

Eighteen interns (95%) completed a baseline GO-ST assessment and the 3-month follow-up, including the PSS. Mastery GO decreased from orientation to 3-month follow-up for the entire cohort, but this was not significant (3.89-3.63; p = 0.19). Preliminary interns showed a significant increase in PAV orientation after 3 months (3.28-3.67; p = 0.04) and had significantly lower mastery orientation scores at this time (4.07 vs 3.19; p = 0.02). PSS was significantly higher in preliminary interns at 3 months (18.56 vs 11.89; p = 0.04). Those who were predominantly mastery oriented had significantly lower perceived stress scores (11.64 vs 20.10; p = 0.002) compared with those that had performance goal orientations (PAP and PAV). Five interns (28%) participated in focus groups-identifying pertinent themes: 1) Perceptions of competence, 2) Training security; 3) Feedback approach, 4) Expectations of competence, and 5) Approaches to growth.

CONCLUSION

Mastery GO declines during the transition to surgical residency. Maladaptive PAV orientation increases in preliminary interns due to different short-term priorities and assumptions of competence. Expectations and perceptions of intern competence by senior residents and attendings have a large impact on intern GO. Identifying interventions that optimize mastery goal orientation and minimize performance avoid orientation will potentially minimize intern stress, thereby improving both well-being and clinical performance.

Political context and immigrants' work-related performance errors: Insights from the National Basketball Association

In numerous countries, both international migration and regional support for far-right political parties are on the rise. This is important considering that a frequent aim of far-right political parties is to aggressively limit the inflow of immigrants. Understanding how regional far-right political support affects the immigrants working in these regions is therefore vital for executives and organizations as a whole. Integrating political science research at the macro-level with stereotype threat theory at the individual level, we argue that regional far-right political support makes negative immigrant stereotypes salient, increasing the number of work-related performance errors conducted by immigrants while reducing those by natives. Using objective field data from a professional sports context, we demonstrate how subordinates' immigrant status interacts with the political context in which they reside to predict their frequency of performance errors.

Discrimination reduces work effort of those who are disadvantaged and those who are advantaged by it

Research shows that discrimination is widespread in work organizations, yet we know little about the causal effects of discrimination on employees' work effort. Here we argue that, by decoupling effort from rewards, discrimination reduces the work effort of those who are disadvantaged by discrimination and those advantaged by it. We test these arguments against the results of five experiments designed to model promotion situations in organizations (total N = 1,184). Together, these studies show that when supervised by a manager with a discriminatory preference, both disadvantaged and advantaged workers reduce their work effort relative to a control condition where the manager is not discriminatory. The negative effect of discrimination is larger for those disadvantaged by it. These effects are mediated by employees' beliefs about how strongly work will impact their chances of reward. We then demonstrate that the relatively greater effort of advantaged-versus disadvantaged-workers in discriminatory organizations leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy: when faced with this effort differential, managers (N = 119) who did not have a priori discriminatory attitudes judged the advantaged category as more competent and deserving of workplace advancement than the disadvantaged category. Our results show that even though discrimination reduces all workers' effort, it can ultimately produce outcomes that reify and entrench discriminatory beliefs.