Pediatric blunt abdominal trauma: periportal tracking at CT

Diagnostic imaging of blunt abdominal trauma in pediatric patients

Trauma is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in childhood, and blunt trauma accounts for 80-90 % of abdominal injuries. The mechanism of trauma is quite similar to that of the adults, but there are important physiologic differences between children and adults in this field, such as the smaller blood vessels and the high vasoconstrictive response, leading to the spreading of a non-operative management. The early imaging of children undergoing a low-energy trauma can be performed by CEUS, a valuable diagnostic tool to demonstrate solid organ injuries with almost the same sensitivity of CT scans; nevertheless, as for as urinary tract injuries, MDCT remains still the technique of choice, because of its high sensitivity and accuracy, helping to discriminate between an intra-peritoneal form a retroperitoneal urinary leakage, requiring two different managements. The liver is the most common organ injured in blunt abdominal trauma followed by the spleen. Renal, pancreatic, and bowel injuries are quite rare. In this review we present various imaging findings of blunt abdominal trauma in children.

Peri-portal lymphedema in association with an acute adrenal insufficiency: case report

INTRODUCTION

We report the case of a patient with peri-portal lymphedema in association with severe adrenal insufficiency. To the best of our knowledge, this association was not previously reported in the literature. Peri-portal lymphedema is usually seen in cases such as blunt abdominal trauma, hepatic congestion and post-liver transplantation.

CASE PRESENTATION

We present the case of a 28-year-old Indian man who presented to our hospital with adrenal crisis and was treated accordingly. Computed tomography of his abdomen showed evidence of peri-portal lymphedema (edema) with some free fluid collection. We excluded other causes of this pathology and followed the patient's condition after steroid replacement therapy. We found no other contributing factors to the patient's peri-portal lymphedema apart from the adrenal crisis, which was more consolidated when we followed the patient after steroid replacement therapy, during which follow-up computed tomography showed complete resolution of the pathology.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude following an extensive MEDLINE® search that this is the first case to be reported for the association between peri-portal lymphedema and adrenal insufficiency, after having excluded all other causes of peri-portal lymphedema. This signifies reporting of this case as the first one in the medical literature.

Blunt abdominal trauma resulting in gallbladder injury: a review with emphasis on pediatrics

BACKGROUND

Gallbladder injury in blunt abdominal trauma is a rare and difficult diagnosis. Gallbladder injury is reported to be between 1.9% and 2.1% of all abdominal traumas. It has vague symptoms usually with inconclusive investigation results; hence, it is often diagnosed at laparotomy. The patient typically has vague abdominal pain and occasionally a period of remission depending on the type of gallbladder injury. In pediatrics, blunt abdominal trauma presents additional challenges of difficult historians and compensating physiology. Any delay in diagnosis and definitive management will worsen the prognosis. Making the diagnosis requires astute clinical acumen and radiologic interpretation. The classification system of Losanoff has merit in guiding treatment. While cholecystectomy is the preferred treatment, there are occasions when the gallbladder may be left in situ and these are discussed.

METHODS

Literature searches were performed using Pubmed and Medline with keywords "abdominal trauma," "gallbladder injury," and "gallbladder perforation."

DISCUSSION

The authors highlight the incidence of associated visceral injuries in gallbladder trauma (>90%). Gallbladder perforation is more likely in cases when the gallbladder is distended and thin-walled at the time of injury. Therefore, we recommend that gallbladder perforation is suspected in those patients who have drunk alcohol or eaten recently. Despite the developments in modern computed tomography, identifying gallbladder perforation is difficult because of the subtlety and rarity of the condition. We draw attention to the proposed anatomic classification systems because they are of some use in guiding treatment. In the absence of a diagnosis after blunt abdominal trauma and with intra-abdominal free fluid, the clinician faces the difficult decision of whether surgery is indicated for a potential visceral injury. After discussing the available evidence, the authors advocate a low index of suspicion for performing diagnostic laparoscopy.

Periportal edema in trauma patients: correlation with trauma severity

BACKGROUND

Periportal edema (PPE) can be seen in different clinical settings, including in patients following trauma. However, the underlying mechanisms and clinical significance in trauma patients still remain unclear.

PURPOSE

To determine the incidence of PPE in CT scans of trauma patients and to correlate PPE with trauma severity and different patterns of injury.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed contrast-enhanced spiral CT scans of 127 trauma patients that were referred to our Trauma Center Level I between January 2006 and June 2007. According to the Injury Severity Score (ISS), 70 patients with an ISS < 16 (minor trauma) were assigned to group 1 and 57 patients with an ISS ≥16 (major trauma) to group 2.

RESULTS

The presence of PPE was significantly (p < 0.01) higher in group 2 (22 of 57 patients [38.6%]) than in group 1 (10 of 70 patients [14.3%]). In 29 patients PPE presented with a diffuse pattern and in three patients with a focal pattern, affecting only one liver lobe. In 14 patients PPE was found in absence of abdominal injuries. In addition, PPE was present in five patients with abdominal injuries but without liver injury.

CONCLUSION

PPE is seen significantly more often on abdominal CT scans following major traumas (ISS ≥ 16), but is not necessarily associated with liver injury.

Abdominal imaging in child abuse

INTRODUCTION

Abdominal injuries in abused children are less common than musculoskeletal and craniocerebral injuries; however they carry high mortality and morbidity rates. In every case of trauma, regardless of aetiology, radiologists are responsible for the documentation and evaluation of injuries.

INJURIES

Any abdominal injury pattern maybe observed following physical abuse and none is specific for abuse. However, a high index of suspicion should be maintained for every case of pancreatic, hollow viscous and other solid organ injuries, especially when there is delay in seeking help, a history of trauma to the child or siblings, young age, undernourishment, ecchymosis in non-ambulatory children or a non-plausible explanation for the injuries based on the provided history and the psychomotor condition of the child.

IMAGING MODALITIES

CT with intravenous contrast material is the imaging modality of choice in every suspected inflicted abdominal injury. US could be the first imaging test for abused children with a low probability of abdominal injury and for follow-up. Upper gastrointestinal series could reveal acute or resolving mural haematomas in children with equivocal CT or US findings.

CONCLUSION

Child abuse should be considered in the differential diagnosis of acute abdominal symptoms in young children.

Pseudopancreatitis in trauma patients

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of our study was to review the significance of intra- and peripancreatic fluid in trauma patients who have no other signs of pancreatic injury.

CONCLUSION

We propose that intra- and peripancreatic fluid may be the consequence of hypovolemic shock treated with hyperhydration when there is significant delay between injury and imaging.

Imaging children with abdominal trauma

OBJECTIVE

Trauma is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in children. The abdomen is the second most common site of injury. This article discusses abdominal trauma in children.

CONCLUSION

The clinical evaluation of children with potential blunt abdominal injury presents a challenging task. Therefore, imaging plays an essential role in the evaluation of such children.

Freqüência dos sinais de pielonefrite aguda em pacientes submetidos a tomografia computadorizada

OBJETIVO: Estimar a freqüência das alterações tomográficas renais e extra-renais em pacientes com pielonefrite aguda e avaliar o grau de concordância interobservador. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Realizamos trabalho retrospectivo a partir da análise dos exames de tomografia computadorizada de 47 pacientes com diagnóstico clínico e laboratorial de pielonefrite aguda. Dois examinadores independentes avaliaram as principais alterações renais, perirrenais e extra-renais. Foi medida a freqüência dos achados tomográficos e a concordância interobservador por meio do teste kappa (kapa). RESULTADOS: A freqüência dos achados tomográficos para os diversos parâmetros estudados foi: nefrograma heterogêneo, 100%; nefromegalia, 65%; heterogeneidade da gordura, 62,5%; nefrolitíase, 16,6%; abscessos, 21%; derrame pleural, 36%; espessamento da vesícula biliar, 32,5%; edema periportal, 32,5%. O teste kapa para a concordância interobservador demonstrou reprodutibilidade variando entre moderada (kapa = 0,511 para nefromegalia) e quase perfeita (kapa = 0,87 para nefrograma heterogêneo) para todos os parâmetros estudados, exceto para a heterogeneidade da gordura perirrenal (kapa = 0,268). CONCLUSÃO: A freqüência dos diversos achados tomográficos de pielonefrite aguda é elevada, sendo o nefrograma heterogêneo o sinal mais comum. Alterações perinefréticas e extra-renais são observadas em até dois terços dos casos. A tomografia computadorizada apresenta boa concordância interobservador.

Extrarenal manifestations of severe acute pyelonephritis: CT findings in 21 cases

The aim of this study is to report the extrarenal computerized tomography (CT) findings in patients with acute pyelonephritis (APN). Twenty-one CT examinations of 20 patients [19 women and one man, with ages ranging from 18 to 57 years (mean -35.2 years)], presenting either with a clinical diagnosis of APN (n=17) or with a suspected acute appendicitis, fever of unknown origin, and adult respiratory distress syndrome, one in each, were retrospectively reviewed. None had a known preexisting systemic disease. Results showed that renal abnormalities were seen on CT in all patients. In addition, ascites was detected in all women patients associated with subcutaneous edema in five of them. A thickened gallbladder wall was found in 19 cases, all were women, and periportal tracking and a dilated inferior vena cava in 17 CTs. Pleural effusion and thickened interlobular septa were present in 16 and 15 studies, respectively. Relevant laboratory findings included hypoalbuminemia in 14, elevated liver enzymes in 11, hypocholesterolemia in nine, and elevated LDH levels in six cases. In conclusion, radiologists should be familiar with the extrarenal imaging features of APN that may be seen on CT, and on ultrasonography as well, and should look for renal abnormalities to diagnose a clinically unsuspected APN. Alternatively, APN should be included in the differential diagnosis of systemic diseases that cause gallbladder wall thickening to avoid misdiagnosing it as acute cholecystitis.

Helical CT of abdominal trauma

CT has revolutionized the diagnostic work-up of trauma patients with suspected abdominal injuries. A wide range of intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal organ injuries can be quickly and accurately diagnosed with CT. Today, helical CT technology permits even faster examinations, with improved intravenous contrast opacification of parenchymal organs and vascular structures and reduced CT artifacts caused by patient motion, respiration, and arterial pulsation. Severely injured and potentially unstable patients, who might not have been able to tolerate the long CT examinations of the past, may be quickly evaluated today with helical CT. Accurate diagnosis requires high quality CT examinations that are performed with optimum CT protocols. This article reviews the currently recommended helical CT protocols for evaluating patients with suspected abdominal injuries, and the CT findings when injuries are present.

Pediatric hepatic trauma: does clinical course support intensive care unit stay?

PURPOSE

The objective of this study is to determine if grade of liver injury predicts outcome after blunt hepatic trauma in children and to initiate analysis of current management practices to optimize resource utilization without compromising patient care.

METHODS

A retrospective review of 36 children who had blunt hepatic trauma treated at a pediatric trauma center from 1989 to present was performed. Hepatic injuries graded (AAST Organ Injury Scaling) ranged from grade I to IV. Injury Severity Score (ISS), Glasgow Coma Score (GCS), transfusion requirements, liver transaminase levels, associated injuries, intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay, and survival were analyzed.

RESULTS

Mean (+/-SEM) age was 6.6+/-0.8 years, mean grade of hepatic injury was 2.4+/-0.2, mean ISS was 17+/-2.6, mean GCS was 13+/-1, and mean transfusion was 15.4 mL/kg of packed red blood cells (PRBC). There were three deaths with a mean ISS of 59+/-9 and a mean GCS of 3+/-0. Death was not associated with a high-grade liver injury, survivors versus nonsurvivors, 2.3+/-0.2 versus 2.7+/-0.3, but was associated with ISS, 13+/-1.4 versus 59+/-9 (P = .005) and GCS, 14+/-1 versus 3+/-0 (P = .005). Only one patient (grade III, ISS = 43) underwent surgery. There were no differences in mean ISS or GCS between grades I to IV patients. The hepatic injury grades of patients requiring transfusion versus no transfusion were significantly different, 3.4+/-0.2 versus 2.2+/-0.2 (P = 0.04). Abused patients had high-grade hepatic injuries and significant laboratory and clinical findings. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were significantly higher in grade III and IV injuries than in grades I and II, 1,157+/-320 versus 333+/-61 (P= .02) and 1,176+/-299 versus 516+/-86 (P= .04), respectively. No children with grade I or II injury had a transfusion requirement or surgical intervention. There were no liver-related complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Mortality and morbidity rates in pediatric liver injuries, grades I to IV, correlate with associated injuries not the degree of hepatic damage. ALT, AST, and transfusion requirements are significantly related to degree of liver injury. Low-grade and isolated high-grade liver injuries seldom require transfusion. Blunt liver trauma rarely requires surgical intervention. In retrospect, the need for expensive ICU observation for low-grade and isolated high-grade hepatic injuries is questionably warranted.

Hypoechoic periportal cuffing in acute myeloid leukemia

We report a case of hypoechoic periportal cuffing in a patient with acute myeloid leukemia. The hypoechoic area encasing the main portal vein and its branches may have been caused by transient lymphedema resulting from the blockage of small lymph vessels or from direct periportal infiltration by malignant cells. The sonographic abnormality disappeared within 2 weeks of the commencement of chemotherapy.

CT scan evaluation of blunt hepatic trauma

Information provided by CT scan allows for determination of the extent of liver injury and identification of other nonhepatic abdominal injuries. This information, coupled with clinical assessment, can be used to optimize management. Contrast-enhanced CT scan can monitor progression or resolution of hepatic injuries, detect complications, and guide percutaneous treatment of some complications. This article discusses CT scanning technique; classification, sites, and mechanisms of liver injury; CT scan appearance of liver injury; and complications of hepatic trauma.

CT of abdominal and pelvic trauma

CT is the diagnostic study of choice at most institutions in the evaluation of hemodynamically stable, blunt abdominal trauma. It is highly specific and sensitive in the detection and definition of the extent of most intra-abdominal and pelvic injuries. The clinical examination is the most important factor in the decision regarding whether surgery should be undertaken. However, a progressive and steady trend toward the nonoperative management of solid parenchymal injury is occurring, partly because of the ability of CT to define the extent of injury and to follow its healing over time. Clinical management, CT findings, and the utility of these findings are presented and discussed for each organ system injury within the abdomen and pelvis.

Clinical significance of periportal tracking on computed tomographic scan in patients with blunt liver trauma

This study was undertaken to evaluate the clinical significance of periportal tracking on computed tomography (CT) in patients with blunt liver trauma. The clinical records and CT findings of 88 patients were reviewed. Angiographic study revealed potential injury to portal triads in patients with periportal tracking on CT. Extrahepatic injuries beneath the liver were associated in 22 of 28 patients with periportal tracking and in 2 of 17 without periportal tracking (P < 0.01, chi-square = 16.38). Hepatic complications such as bile leak, biloma, hemobilia, and infected hematoma were evaluated separately in 43 patients treated conservatively and 45 patients treated surgically. The incidence of complications in patients with periportal tracking was significantly higher in both groups (nonoperative; P < 0.01, chi-square = 8.46 and operative; P < 0.01, chi-square = 8.48). We conclude that periportal tracking on CT implies injury to the subhepatic region and intrahepatic portal triads and that it requires careful examination for extrahepatic injuries in the initial management and late hepatic complications in the follow-up management.

Periportal tracking in pediatric blunt abdominal trauma. Correlation with liver enzymes and liver injury

This is a retrospective study of the computed tomography (CT) examinations and medical records of 243 consecutive pediatric patients sent for CT studies after blunt abdominal trauma. The purpose of the study was to determine the frequency and significance of periportal tracking identified by CT, and correlate this finding with liver enzyme levels and liver injury. Periportal tracking (PPT) was divided into four grades (0-3) depending upon the distribution of decreased attenuation adjacent to the portal vessels. Circumferential PPT extending to the periphery of the liver (grade 3) was found in 20/243 children. They had a higher incidence of liver parenchymal injury seen on CT 20% versus 0.5% in combined PPT grades 0-2. Sixteen children with grade 3 PPT and no liver injury had significantly elevated liver enzymes as compared to children with combined 0-2 grade PPT. Eleven of the 20 children with grade 3 PPT had no other CT evidence of intraabdominal injury and none of these patients developed intraabdominal hemorrhage. Thus, grade 3 periportal tracking as an isolated abnormality did not indicate a clinically significant liver injury in any patient.

Significance of periportal low-attenuation zones following blunt trauma in children

The CT scans of 400 consecutive children evaluated with CT following blunt abdominal trauma were evaluated to determine the frequency of periportal low-attenuation zones, assess patterns of associated intraabdominal injury, and examine clinical outcome. Periportal low-attenuation zones were noted in 60 children (15%). The presence of these zones was associated with a significantly higher incidence of intraabdominal injury (60% versus 11%, p = 0.0001). Injuries most frequently associated with zones of periportal low-attenuation included hepatic (n = 23, 38%), and adrenal (n = 14, 23%). Children who had periportal low-attenuation zones tended to be more physiologically unstable as evidenced by a lower Trauma Score (diffuse, 11.9; focal, 13.4) than children without the zones (15.1, p = 0.0001). The presence of these zones was also associated with a significantly higher mortality rate (13% versus 1%, p = 0.0001). Ten children who had periportal low-attenuation zones and no hepatic injury on CT had a normal appearing liver on gross inspection at surgery or autopsy. In conclusion, periportal low-attenuation zones are common in children who have hepatic injury. These zones may be seen in conjunction with non-hepatic visceral injury or in the absence of intraabdominal injury. The presence of zones of periportal low-attenuation is associated with a higher index of physiologic instability, and higher mortality.