Atherosclerosis and endothelial mechanotransduction: current knowledge and models for future research

Basal endothelial glycocalyx's response to shear stress: a review of structure, function, and clinical implications

The endothelial glycocalyx encompasses the entire endothelial cell, transducing extracellular signals and regulating vascular permeability and barrier functions. The apical glycocalyx, which forms the lumen of the vessel, and the basal glycocalyx, at the smooth muscle cell interface, are often investigated separately as they are exposed to vastly different stimuli. The apical glycocalyx directly senses fluid shear forces transmitting them intracellularly through connection to the cytoskeleton of the endothelial cell. The basal glycocalyx has demonstrated sensitivity to shear due to blood flow transmitted through the cytoskeleton, promoting alternate signaling processes. In this review, we discuss current literature on the basal glycocalyx's response to shear stress in the context of mechanotransduction and remodeling. The possible implications of basal glycocalyx degradation in pathologies are also explored. Finally, this review seeks to highlight how addressing the gaps discussed would improve our wholistic understanding of the endothelial glycocalyx and its role in maintaining vascular homeostasis.

Squishy matters - Corneal mechanobiology in health and disease

The cornea, as a dynamic and responsive tissue, constantly interacts with mechanical forces in order to maintain its structural integrity, barrier function, transparency and refractive power. Cells within the cornea sense and respond to various mechanical forces that fundamentally regulate their morphology and fate in development, homeostasis and pathophysiology. Corneal cells also dynamically regulate their extracellular matrix (ECM) with ensuing cell-ECM crosstalk as the matrix serves as a dynamic signaling reservoir providing biophysical and biochemical cues to corneal cells. Here we provide an overview of mechanotransduction signaling pathways then delve into the recent advances in corneal mechanobiology, focusing on the interplay between mechanical forces and responses of the corneal epithelial, stromal, and endothelial cells. We also identify species-specific differences in corneal biomechanics and mechanotransduction to facilitate identification of optimal animal models to study corneal wound healing, disease, and novel therapeutic interventions. Finally, we identify key knowledge gaps and therapeutic opportunities in corneal mechanobiology that are pressing for the research community to address especially pertinent within the domains of limbal stem cell deficiency, keratoconus and Fuchs' endothelial corneal dystrophy. By furthering our understanding corneal mechanobiology, we can contextualize discoveries regarding corneal diseases as well as innovative treatments for them.

Calciprotein Particles Induce Cellular Compartment-Specific Proteome Alterations in Human Arterial Endothelial Cells

Calciprotein particles (CPPs) are indispensable scavengers of excessive Ca2+ and PO43- ions in blood, being internalised and recycled by liver and spleen macrophages, monocytes, and endothelial cells (ECs). Here, we performed a pathway enrichment analysis of cellular compartment-specific proteomes in primary human coronary artery ECs (HCAEC) and human internal thoracic artery ECs (HITAEC) treated with primary (amorphous) or secondary (crystalline) CPPs (CPP-P and CPPs, respectively). Exposure to CPP-P and CPP-S induced notable upregulation of: (1) cytokine- and chemokine-mediated signaling, Ca2+-dependent events, and apoptosis in cytosolic and nuclear proteomes; (2) H+ and Ca2+ transmembrane transport, generation of reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation, and intrinsic apoptosis in the mitochondrial proteome; (3) oxidative, calcium, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, unfolded protein binding, and apoptosis in the ER proteome. In contrast, transcription, post-transcriptional regulation, translation, cell cycle, and cell-cell adhesion pathways were underrepresented in cytosol and nuclear compartments, whilst biosynthesis of amino acids, mitochondrial translation, fatty acid oxidation, pyruvate dehydrogenase activity, and energy generation were downregulated in the mitochondrial proteome of CPP-treated ECs. Differentially expressed organelle-specific pathways were coherent in HCAEC and HITAEC and between ECs treated with CPP-P or CPP-S. Proteomic analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear lysates from CPP-treated ECs confirmed bioinformatic filtration findings.

The microenvironment of the atheroma expresses phenotypes of plaque instability

Data from histopathology studies of human atherosclerotic tissue specimens and from vascular imaging studies support the concept that the local arterial microenvironment of a stable atheroma promotes destabilizing conditions that result in the transition to an unstable atheroma. Destabilization is characterized by several different plaque phenotypes that cause major clinical events such as acute coronary syndrome and cerebrovascular strokes. There are several rupture-associated phenotypes causing thrombotic vascular occlusion including simple fibrous cap rupture of an atheroma, fibrous cap rupture at site of previous rupture-and-repair of an atheroma, and nodular calcification with rupture. Endothelial erosion without rupture has more recently been shown to be a common phenotype to promote thrombosis as well. Microenvironment features that are linked to these phenotypes of plaque instability are neovascularization arising from the vasa vasorum network leading to necrotic core expansion, intraplaque hemorrhage, and cap rupture; activation of adventitial and perivascular adipose tissue cells leading to secretion of cytokines, growth factors, adipokines in the outer artery wall that destabilize plaque structure; and vascular smooth muscle cell phenotypic switching through transdifferentiation and stem/progenitor cell activation resulting in the promotion of inflammation, calcification, and secretion of extracellular matrix, altering fibrous cap structure, and necrotic core growth. As the technology evolves, studies using noninvasive vascular imaging will be able to investigate the transition of stable to unstable atheromas in real time. A limitation in the field, however, is that reliable and predictable experimental models of spontaneous plaque rupture and/or erosion are not currently available to study the cell and molecular mechanisms that regulate the conversion of the stable atheroma to an unstable plaque.

Endothelial glycocalyx sensitivity to chemical and mechanical sub-endothelial substrate properties

Glycocalyx (GCX) is a carbohydrate-rich structure that coats the surface of endothelial cells (ECs) and lines the blood vessel lumen. Mechanical perturbations in the vascular environment, such as blood vessel stiffness, can be transduced and sent to ECs through mechanosensors such as GCX. Adverse stiffness alters GCX-mediated mechanotransduction and leads to EC dysfunction and eventually atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. To understand GCX-regulated mechanotransduction events, an in vitro model emulating in vivo vessel conditions is needed. To this end, we investigated the impact of matrix chemical and mechanical properties on GCX expression via fabricating a tunable non-swelling matrix based on the collagen-derived polypeptide, gelatin. To study the effect of matrix composition, we conducted a comparative analysis of GCX expression using different concentrations (60-25,000 μg/mL) of gelatin and gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) in comparison to fibronectin (60 μg/mL), a standard coating material for GCX-related studies. Using immunocytochemistry analysis, we showed for the first time that different substrate compositions and concentrations altered the overall GCX expression on human umbilical vein ECs (HUVECs). Subsequently, GelMA hydrogels were fabricated with stiffnesses of 2.5 and 5 kPa, representing healthy vessel tissues, and 10 kPa, corresponding to diseased vessel tissues. Immunocytochemistry analysis showed that on hydrogels with different levels of stiffness, the GCX expression in HUVECs remained unchanged, while its major polysaccharide components exhibited dysregulation in distinct patterns. For example, there was a significant decrease in heparan sulfate expression on pathological substrates (10 kPa), while sialic acid expression increased with increased matrix stiffness. This study suggests the specific mechanisms through which GCX may influence ECs in modulating barrier function, immune cell adhesion, and mechanotransduction function under distinct chemical and mechanical conditions of both healthy and diseased substrates.

Mechanosensing and Mechanosignal Transduction in Atherosclerosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to summarize the latest findings on mechanosensing in atherosclerosis, elucidating the molecular mechanisms, cellular players, and potential therapeutic targets.

RECENT FINDINGS

Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the buildup of lipid-laden plaque within arterial walls, is a major contributor to cardiovascular disease-related mortality and morbidity. Interestingly, atherosclerosis predominantly occurs in arterial areas with curves and branches. In these regions, endothelial cells encounter irregular blood flow with distinctive low-intensity fluctuating shear stress. On the other hand, straight sections of arteries, subjected to a consistent flow and related high-intensity, one-way shear stress, are relatively safeguarded against atherosclerosis due to shear-dependent, disease-preventing endothelial cell reactions. In recent years, researchers have been investigating the role of mechanosensing in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. At the core of mechanosensing is the ability of various cells to sense and respond to biomechanical forces in their environment. In the context of atherosclerosis, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and immune cells are subjected to various mechanical or physical stimuli, including shear stress, cyclic strain, and matrix stiffness. These mechanical cues play a crucial role in regulating cellular behavior and contribute to the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis. Accumulating evidence suggests that various mechanical or physical cues play a critical role in the development and promotion of atherosclerosis.

Detection of Early Endothelial Dysfunction by Optoacoustic Tomography

Variations in vascular wall shear stress are often presumed to result in the formation of atherosclerotic lesions at specific arterial regions, where continuous laminar flow is disturbed. The influences of altered blood flow dynamics and oscillations on the integrity of endothelial cells and the endothelial layer have been extensively studied in vitro and in vivo. Under pathological conditions, the Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) motif binding integrin α_vβ₃ has been identified as a relevant target, as it induces endothelial cell activation. Animal models for in vivo imaging of endothelial dysfunction (ED) mainly rely on genetically modified knockout models that develop endothelial damage and atherosclerotic plaques upon hypercholesterolemia (ApoE^-/- and LDLR^-/-), thereby depicting late-stage pathophysiology. The visualization of early ED, however, remains a challenge. Therefore, a carotid artery cuff model of low and oscillating shear stress was applied in CD-1 wild-type mice, which should be able to show the effects of altered shear stress on a healthy endothelium, thus revealing alterations in early ED. Multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) was assessed as a non-invasive and highly sensitive imaging technique for the detection of an intravenously injected RGD-mimetic fluorescent probe in a longitudinal (2-12 weeks) study after surgical cuff intervention of the right common carotid artery (RCCA). Images were analyzed concerning the signal distribution upstream and downstream of the implanted cuff, as well as on the contralateral side as a control. Subsequent histological analysis was applied to delineate the distribution of relevant factors within the carotid vessel walls. Analysis revealed a significantly enhanced fluorescent signal intensity in the RCCA upstream of the cuff compared to the contralateral healthy side and the downstream region at all time points post-surgery. The most obvious differences were recorded at 6 and 8 weeks after implantation. Immunohistochemistry revealed a high degree of α_v-positivity in this region of the RCCA, but not in the left common carotid artery (LCCA) or downstream of the cuff. In addition, macrophages could be detected by CD68 immunohistochemistry in the RCCA, showing ongoing inflammatory processes. In conclusion, MSOT is capable of delineating alterations in endothelial cell integrity in vivo in the applied model of early ED, where an elevated expression of integrin α_vβ₃ was detected within vascular structures.

Schisanhenol ameliorates oxLDL-caused endothelial dysfunction by inhibiting LOX-1 signaling

Atherosclerotic lesions play a critical role in leading cardiovascular diseases. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL) is a vital risk factor for atherosclerosis since it acts a crucial role in endothelial dysfunction and foam cell formation. Schisanhenol, a composition extracted from the fruit of Schisandra rubriflora, has been reported to have antioxidative effects on human LDL oxidation. This study investigates whether Schisanhenol protects against oxLDL-mediated endothelial damage by modulating the lectin-like oxLDL receptor-1 (LOX-1)-mediated inflammatory processes. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were pre-treated with 10 or 20 μM Schisanhenol for 2 h and then exposed to 150 μg/mL oxLDL. We revealed that Schisanhenol reduced oxLDL-enhanced LOX-1 expression. We also found that oxLDL down-regulated endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) as well as activated inducible NOS (iNOS), thereby enhancing the generation of nitric oxide (NO). Moreover, oxLDL elevated the expression levels of phosphorylated-p38MAPK, subsequently promoting NF-κB-modulated inflammatory responses. Pretreatment with Schisanhenol exerted significant cytoprotective function in all the above-mentioned detrimental events. Results from this present study reveal that Schisanhenol has a potential therapeutic effect on preventing oxLDL-induced endothelial injuries.