AICAR and compound C negatively modulate HCC-induced primary human hepatic stellate cell activation in vitro

The antiprotozoal drug nitazoxanide improves experimental liver fibrosis in mice

Nitazoxanide is an FDA-approved antiprotozoal drug. Our previous studies find that nitazoxanide and its metabolite tizoxanide affect AMPK, STAT3, and Smad2/3 signals which are involved in the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis, therefore, in the present study, we examined the effect of nitazoxanide on experimental liver fibrosis and elucidated the potential mechanisms. The in vivo experiment results showed that oral nitazoxanide (75, 100 mg·kg-1) significantly improved CCl4- and bile duct ligation-induced liver fibrosis in mice. Oral nitazoxanide activated the inhibited AMPK and inhibited the activated STAT3 in liver tissues from liver fibrosis mice. The in vitro experiment results showed that nitazoxanide and its metabolite tizoxanide activated AMPK and inhibited STAT3 signals in LX-2 cells (human hepatic stellate cells). Nitazoxanide and tizoxanide inhibited cell proliferation and collagen I expression and secretion of LX-2 cells. Nitazoxanide and tizoxanide inhibited transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)- and IL-6-induced increases of cell proliferation, collagen I expression and secretion, inhibited TGF-β1- and IL-6-induced STAT3 and Smad2/3 activation in LX-2 cells. In mouse primary hepatic stellate cells, nitazoxanide and tizoxanide also activated AMPK, inhibited STAT3 and Smad2/3 activation, inhibited cell proliferation, collagen I expression and secretion. In conclusion, nitazoxanide inhibits liver fibrosis and the underlying mechanisms involve AMPK activation, and STAT3 and Smad2/3 inhibition.

The interaction between 20-hydroxyecdysone and AMPK through PI3K activation in Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis

In crustaceans, the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) initiates molting, and the molting process is also regulated by energy metabolism. AMPK is an energy sensor and plays a critical role in systemic energy balance. Here, the regulatory mechanism in the interaction between 20E and AMPK was investigated in Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis. The results showed that the 20E concentration and the mRNA expression levels of 20E receptors in hepatopancreas were down-regulated post AMPK activator (AICAR) treatment, and were up-regulated after AMPK inhibitor (Compound C) injection in crabs. Besides, the molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH) gene expression in eyestalk showed the opposite patterns in response to the AICAR and Compound C treatment, respectively. Further investigation found that there was a significant reduction in 20E concentration post PI3K inhibitor (LY294002) treatment, and the phosphorylation level of PI3K was increased in hepatopancreas after AMPK inhibitor injection. On the other hand, the positive regulation of PI3K-mediated activation of AMPK was also observed, the phosphorylation levels of AMPKα, AMPKβ and PI3K in hepatopancreas were significantly increased post 20E injection. In addition, the phosphorylation levels of AMPKα and AMPKβ induced by 20E were decreased after the injection of PI3K inhibitor. Taken together, these results suggest that the regulatory cross-talk between 20E and AMPK is likely to act through PI3K pathway in E. sinensis, which appeared to be helpful for a better understanding in molting regulation.

PFKFB2 Inhibits Ferroptosis in Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Through Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase Activation

ABSTRACT

Six-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2, 6-bisphosphatase 2 (PFKFB2) is a key regulator of glycolytic enzyme. This study identified whether PFKFB2 can regulate myocardial ferroptosis in ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Mice myocardial (I/R) injury and H9c2 cells oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) models were established. PFKFB2 expression was enhanced in I/R mice and OGD/R H9c2 cells. Overexpression of PFKFB2 improves heart function in I/R mice. Overexpression of PFKFB2 inhibits I/R and OGD/R-induced ferroptosis in mice and H9c2 cells. Mechanistically, overexpression of PFKFB2 activates the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK inhibitor compound C reverses effect of PFKFB2 overexpression in reducing ferroptosis under OGD/R treatment. In conclusion, PFKFB2 protects hearts against I/R-induced ferroptosis through activation of the AMPK signaling pathway.

Suppression of Adipogenesis and Fat Accumulation by Vitexin Through Activation of Hedgehog Signaling in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

Many studies have demonstrated that adipogenesis is associated with obesity, and the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway regulates adipogenesis and obesity. Following the screening study of the chemical library evaluating the effect of vitexin on Gli1 transcriptional activity, vitexin was chosen as a candidate for antiadipogenic efficacy. Vitexin significantly reduced lipid accumulation and suppressed C/EBPα (CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α) and PPARγ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ) expression, which are known as key adipogenic factors in the early stages of adipogenesis by activating Hh signaling. Furthermore, Hh inhibitor GANT61 reversed the effect of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activator AICAR (5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide), indicating that Hh signaling is an upstream regulator of AMPK in 3T3-L1 cells. Vitexin suppressed adipogenesis by regulating Hh signaling and phosphorylation of AMPK, leading to the inhibition of fat formation. These results suggest that vitexin can be considered a potent dietary agent in alleviating lipid accumulation and obesity.

Optimization and Validation of a Novel Three-Dimensional Co-Culture System in Decellularized Human Liver Scaffold for the Study of Liver Fibrosis and Cancer

Simple Summary

This study aims to overcome the current methodological limitations in discovering new therapeutic targets. Therefore, we optimized and validated a co-culture system using decellularized human liver three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds obtained from healthy and cirrhotic human livers for anti-fibrotic and anti-cancer dual drug screening. Both platforms mimic the naturally healthy and physio-pathological microenvironment and are able to recapitulate the key cellular and molecular events leading to liver fibrogenesis and cancer. This study demonstrates the differences between single versus co-cultures and the usage of human-derived liver 3D ECM scaffolds from healthy and cirrhotic livers. As lead compounds, we used Sorafenib and Regorafenib, first- and second-line drugs, and identified two different drug-induced mechanisms depending on the 3D ECM microenvironment. The 3D ECM scaffolds may represent innovative platforms for disease modeling, biomarker discovery, and drug testing in fibrosis and primary cancer.

Abstract

The introduction of new preclinical models for in vitro drug discovery and testing based on 3D tissue-specific extracellular matrix (ECM) is very much awaited. This study was aimed at developing and validating a co-culture model using decellularized human liver 3D ECM scaffolds as a platform for anti-fibrotic and anti-cancer drug testing. Decellularized 3D scaffolds obtained from healthy and cirrhotic human livers were bioengineered with LX2 and HEPG2 as single and co-cultures for up to 13 days and validated as a new drug-testing platform. Pro-fibrogenic markers and cancer phenotypic gene/protein expression and secretion were differently affected when single and co-cultures were exposed to TGF-β1 with specific ECM-dependent effects. The anti-fibrotic efficacy of Sorafenib significantly reduced TGF-β1-induced pro-fibrogenic effects, which coincided with a downregulation of STAT3 phosphorylation. The anti-cancer efficacy of Regorafenib was significantly reduced in 3D bioengineered cells when compared to 2D cultures and dose-dependently associated with cell apoptosis by cleaved PARP-1 activation and P-STAT3 inhibition. Regorafenib reversed TGF-β1-induced P-STAT3 and SHP-1 through induction of epithelial mesenchymal marker E-cadherin and downregulation of vimentin protein expression in both co-cultures engrafting healthy and cirrhotic 3D scaffolds. In their complex, the results of the study suggest that this newly proposed 3D co-culture platform is able to reproduce the natural physio-pathological microenvironment and could be employed for anti-fibrotic and anti-HCC drug screening.

Hepatic stellate cells in the injured liver: Perspectives beyond hepatic fibrosis

Over the last two decades, our understanding of the pathological role of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in fibrotic liver disease has increased dramatically. As HSCs are identified as the principal collagen-producing cells in the injured liver, several experimental and clinical studies have targeted HSCs to treat liver fibrosis. However, HSCs also play a critical role in developing nonfibrotic liver diseases such as cholestasis, portal hypertension, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Therefore, this review exclusively focuses on the role of activated HSCs beyond hepatic fibrosis. In cholestasis conditions, elevated bile salts and bile acids activate HSCs to secrete collagen and other extracellular matrix products, which cause biliary fibrosis and cholangitis. In the chronically injured liver, autocrine and paracrine signaling from liver sinusoidal endothelial cells activates HSCs to induce portal hypertension via endothelin-1 release. In the tumor microenvironment (TME), activated HSCs are the major source of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF). The crosstalk between activated HSC/CAF and tumor cells is associated with tumor cell proliferation, migration, metastasis, and chemoresistance. In TME, activated HSCs convert macrophages to tumor-associated macrophages and induce the differentiation of dendritic cells (DCs) and monocytes to regulatory DCs and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, respectively. This differentiation, in turn, increases T cells proliferation and induces their apoptosis leading to reduced immune surveillance in TME. Thus, HSCs activation in chronically injured liver is a critical process involved in the progression of cholestasis, portal hypertension, and liver cancer.

Remodeling of Mitochondrial Plasticity: The Key Switch from NAFLD/NASH to HCC

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary malignancy of the liver and the third-leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Currently, the global burden of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has dramatically overcome both viral and alcohol hepatitis, thus becoming the main cause of HCC incidence. NAFLD pathogenesis is severely influenced by lifestyle and genetic predisposition. Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that may adapt in response to environment, genetics and epigenetics in the liver ("mitochondrial plasticity"). Mounting evidence highlights that mitochondrial dysfunction due to loss of mitochondrial flexibility may arise before overt NAFLD, and from the early stages of liver injury. Mitochondrial failure promotes not only hepatocellular damage, but also release signals (mito-DAMPs), which trigger inflammation and fibrosis, generating an adverse microenvironment in which several hepatocytes select anti-apoptotic programs and mutations that may allow survival and proliferation. Furthermore, one of the key events in malignant hepatocytes is represented by the remodeling of glucidic-lipidic metabolism combined with the reprogramming of mitochondrial functions, optimized to deal with energy demand. In sum, this review will discuss how mitochondrial defects may be translated into causative explanations of NAFLD-driven HCC, emphasizing future directions for research and for the development of potential preventive or curative strategies.