MicroRNA-132 controls water homeostasis through regulating MECP2-mediated vasopressin synthesis

Functional involvement of septal miR-132 in extinction and oxytocin-mediated reversal of social fear

Social interactions are critical for mammalian survival and evolution. Dysregulation of social behavior often leads to psychopathologies such as social anxiety disorder, denoted by intense fear and avoidance of social situations. Using the social fear conditioning (SFC) paradigm, we analyzed expression levels of miR-132-3p and miR-124-3p within the septum, a brain region essential for social preference and avoidance behavior, after acquisition and extinction of social fear. Here, we found that SFC dynamically altered both microRNAs. Functional in vivo approaches using pharmacological strategies, inhibition of miR-132-3p, viral overexpression of miR-132-3p, and shRNA-mediated knockdown of miR-132-3p specifically within oxytocin receptor-positive neurons confirmed septal miR-132-3p to be critically involved not only in social fear extinction, but also in oxytocin-induced reversal of social fear. Moreover, Argonaute-RNA-co-immunoprecipitation-microarray analysis and further in vitro and in vivo quantification of target mRNA and protein, revealed growth differentiation factor-5 (Gdf-5) as a target of miR-132-3p. Septal application of GDF-5 impaired social fear extinction suggesting its functional involvement in the reversal of social fear. In summary, we show that septal miR-132-3p and its downstream target Gdf-5 regulate social fear expression and potentially mediate oxytocin-induced reversal of social fear.

MicroRNA-19 is regulated by aldosterone in a sex-specific manner to alter kidney sodium transport

A key regulator of blood pressure homeostasis is the steroid hormone aldosterone, which is released as the final signaling hormone of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-signaling (RAAS) system. Aldosterone increases sodium (Na+) reabsorption in the kidney distal nephron to regulate blood volume. Unregulated RAAS signaling can lead to hypertension and cardiovascular disease. The serum and glucocorticoid kinase (SGK1) coordinates much of the Na+ reabsorption in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) tubular epithelial cells. We previously demonstrated that aldosterone alters the expression of microRNAs (miRs) in CCD principal cells. The aldosterone-regulated miRs can modulate Na+ transport and the cellular response to aldosterone signaling. However, the sex-specific regulation of miRs by aldosterone in the kidney distal nephron has not been explored. In this study, we report that miR-19, part of the miR-17-92 cluster, is upregulated in female mouse CCD cells in response to aldosterone activation. Mir-19 binding to the 3'-untranslated region of SGK1 was confirmed using a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Increasing miR-19 expression in CCD cells decreased SGK1 message and protein expression. Removal of this cluster using a nephron-specific, inducible knockout mouse model increased SGK1 expression in female mouse CCD cells. The miR-19-induced decrease in SGK1 protein expression reduced the response to aldosterone stimulation and may account for sex-specific differences in aldosterone signaling. By examining evolution of the miR-17-92 cluster, phylogenetic sequence analysis indicated that this cluster arose at the same time that other Na+-sparing and salt regulatory proteins, specifically SGK1, first emerged, indicating a conserved role for these miRs in kidney function of salt and water homeostasis.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Expression of the microRNA-17-92 cluster is upregulated by aldosterone in mouse cortical collecting duct principal cells, exclusively in female mice. MiR-19 in this cluster targets the serum and glucocorticoid kinase (SGK1) to downregulate both mRNA and protein expression, resulting in a decrease in sodium transport across epithelial cells of the collecting duct. The miR-17-92 cluster is evolutionarily conserved and may act as a novel feedback regulator for aldosterone signaling in females.

Advances in miR-132-Based Biomarker and Therapeutic Potential in the Cardiovascular System

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and subsequent heart failure threaten global health and impose a huge economic burden on society. MicroRNA-132 (miR-132), a regulatory RNA ubiquitously expressed in the cardiovascular system, is up-or down-regulated in the plasma under various cardiac conditions and may serve as a potential diagnostic or prognostic biomarker. More importantly, miR-132 in the myocardium has been demonstrated to be a master regulator in many pathological processes of ischemic or nonischemic heart failure in the past decade, such as myocardial hypertrophy, fibrosis, apoptosis, angiogenesis, calcium handling, neuroendocrine activation, and oxidative stress, through downregulating target mRNA expression. Preclinical and clinical phase 1b studies have suggested antisense oligonucleotide targeting miR-132 may be a potential therapeutic approach for ischemic or nonischemic heart failure in the future. This review aims to summarize recent advances in the physiological and pathological functions of miR-132 and its possible diagnostic and therapeutic potential in cardiovascular disease.

Role of microRNAs in Obesity-Related Kidney Disease

Obesity is a major global health problem and is associated with a significant risk of renal function decline. Obesity-related nephropathy, as one of the complications of obesity, is characterized by a structural and functional damage of the kidney and represents one of the important contributors to the morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite increasing data linking hyperlipidemia and lipotoxicity to kidney injury, the apprehension of molecular mechanisms leading to a development of kidney damage is scarce. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenously produced small noncoding RNA molecules with an important function in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. miRNAs have been demonstrated to be important regulators of a vast array of physiological and pathological processes in many organs, kidney being one of them. In this review, we present an overview of miRNAs, focusing on their functional role in the pathogenesis of obesity-associated renal pathologies. We explain novel findings regarding miRNA-mediated signaling in obesity-related nephropathies and highlight advantages and future perspectives of the therapeutic application of miRNAs in renal diseases.

Epigenetic Modulation of Vasopressin Expression in Health and Disease

Vasopressin is a ubiquitous molecule playing an important role in a wide range of physiological processes thereby implicated in the pathomechanism of many disorders. Its effect is well characterized through V2 receptors, which regulates the water resorption in kidney, while its vasoconstrictory effect through V1a receptor also received a lot of attention in the maintenance of blood pressure during shock. However, the most striking is its central effect both through the V1b receptors in stress-axis regulation as well as through V1a receptors regulating many aspects of our behavior (e.g., social behavior, learning and memory). Vasopressin has been implicated in the development of depression, due to its connection with chronic stress, as well as schizophrenia because of its involvement in social interactions and memory processes. Epigenetic changes may also play a role in the development of these disorders. The possible mechanism includes DNA methylation, histone modification and/or micro RNAs, and these possible regulations will be in the focus of our present review.

MicroRNA Profiles in Normotensive and Hypertensive South African Individuals

Hypertension has a complex pathogenesis and symptoms appear in advanced disease. Dysregulation of gene expression regulatory factors like microRNAs has been reported in disease development. Identifying biomarkers which could help understand the pathogenesis and prognosis of hypertension is essential. The study's objective was to investigate microRNA expression profiles according to participant blood pressure status. Next generation sequencing was used to identify microRNAs in the whole blood of 48 body mass index-, smoking- and age-matched normotensive (n = 12), screen-detected hypertensive (n = 16) and known hypertensive (n = 20) female participants. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to validate the next generation sequencing findings in a larger, independent sample of 84 men and 179 women. Using next generation sequencing, 30 dysregulated microRNAs were identified and miR-1299 and miR-30a-5p were the most significantly differentially expressed. Both microRNAs were upregulated in known hypertensives or screen-detected hypertensives compared to the normotensives. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis indicated possible involvement of platelet activation, calcium signaling and aldosterone synthesis pathways. Further validation of miR-1299 and miR-30a-5p using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction confirmed sequencing results while yielding new findings. These findings demonstrate microRNA dysregulation in hypertension and their expression may be related to genes and biological pathways essential for blood pressure homeostasis.

Overview of host miRNA properties and their association with epigenetics, long non-coding RNAs, and Xeno-infectious factors

MicroRNA-derived structures play impressive roles in various biological processes. So dysregulation of miRNAs can lead to different human diseases. Recent studies have extended our comprehension of the control of miRNA function and features. Here, we overview some remarkable miRNA properties that have potential implications for the miRNA functions, including different variants of a miRNA called isomiRs, miRNA arm selection/arm switching, and the effect of these factors on miRNA target selection. Besides, we review some aspects of miRNA interactions such as the interaction between epigenetics and miRNA (different miRNAs and their related processing enzymes are epigenetically regulated by multiple DNA methylation enzymes. moreover, DNA methylation could be controlled by diverse mechanisms related to miRNAs), direct and indirect crosstalk between miRNA and lnc (Long Non-Coding) RNAs as a further approach to conduct intercellular regulation called "competing endogenous RNA" (ceRNA) that is involved in the pathogenesis of different diseases, and the interaction of miRNA activities and some Xeno-infectious (virus/bacteria/parasite) factors, which result in modulation of the pathogenesis of infections. This review provides some related studies to a better understanding of miRNA involvement mechanisms and overcoming the complexity of related diseases that may be applicable and useful to prognostic, diagnostic, therapeutic purposes and personalized medicine in the future.

Emerging physiological and pathological roles of MeCP2 in non-neurological systems

Numerous neurological and non-neurological disorders are associated with dysfunction of epigenetic modulators, and methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) is one of such proteins. Initially identified as a transcriptional repressor, MeCP2 specifically binds to methylated DNA, and mutations of MeCP2 have been shown to cause Rett syndrome (RTT), a severe neurological disorder. Recently, accumulating evidence suggests that ubiquitously expressed MeCP2 also plays a central role in non-neurological disorders including cardiac dysfunction, liver injury, respiratory disorders, urological dysfunction, adipose tissue metabolism disorders, movement abnormality and inflammatory responses in a DNA methylation dependent or independent manner. Despite significant progresses in our understanding of MeCP2 over the last few decades, there is still a considerable knowledge gap to translate the in vitro and in vivo experimental findings into therapeutic interventions. In this review, we provide a synopsis of the role of MeCP2 in the pathophysiology of non-neurological disorders, MeCP2-based research directions and therapeutic strategies for non-neurological disorders are also discussed.

MicroRNA-132 regulates salt-dependent steady-state renin levels in mice

The body's salt and fluid balance is regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Generation of prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2) in a cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2)-dependent manner in the macula densa, the salt-sensing cells of the kidney, plays a dominant role in renin regulation. Here we show that miR-132 directly targets Cox-2 and affects subsequent PGE2 and renin levels. MiR-132 is induced and reduced by low- and high salt treatment, respectively, in a p38- and ERK1/2-independent and CREB- and salt inducible kinase-dependent manner. Silencing of miR-132 in mice increases macula densa COX-2 expression and elevates PGE2 and renin levels, which are abrogated by the selective COX-2-inhibitor Celecoxib. Furthermore, a low or high salt diet induces and reduces macula densa miR-132 expression, while low salt diet combined with silencing miR-132 further increases renin levels. Taken together, we demonstrate a posttranscriptional regulatory role for salt-dependent miR-132 in fine-tuning the steady-state levels of renin.

Renal Ca2+ and Water Handling in Response to Calcium Sensing Receptor Signaling: Physiopathological Aspects and Role of CaSR-Regulated microRNAs

Calcium (Ca²⁺) is a universal and vital intracellular messenger involved in a diverse range of cellular and biological processes. Changes in the concentration of extracellular Ca²⁺ can disrupt the normal cellular activities and the physiological function of these systems. The calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) is a unique G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) activated by extracellular Ca²⁺ and by other physiological cations, aminoacids, and polyamines. CaSR is the main controller of the extracellular Ca²⁺ homeostatic system by regulating parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion and, in turn, Ca²⁺ absorption and resorption. Recent advances highlight novel signaling pathways activated by CaSR signaling involving the regulation of microRNAs (miRNAs). miRNAs are naturally-occurring small non-coding RNAs that regulate post-transcriptional gene expression and are involved in several diseases. We previously described that high luminal Ca²⁺ in the renal collecting duct attenuates short-term vasopressin-induced aquaporin-2 (AQP2) trafficking through CaSR activation. Moreover, we demonstrated that CaSR signaling reduces AQP2 abundance via AQP2-targeting miRNA-137. This review summarizes the recent data related to CaSR-regulated miRNAs signaling pathways in the kidney.

MicroRNA miR-1002 Enhances NMNAT-Mediated Stress Response by Modulating Alternative Splicing

Understanding endogenous regulation of stress resistance and homeostasis maintenance is critical to developing neuroprotective therapies. Nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase (NMNAT) is a conserved essential enzyme that confers extraordinary protection and stress resistance in many neurodegenerative disease models. Drosophila Nmnat is alternatively spliced to two mRNA variants, RA and RB. RB translates to protein isoform PD with robust protective activity and is upregulated upon stress to confer enhanced neuroprotection. The mechanisms regulating the alternative splicing and stress response of NMNAT remain unclear. We have discovered a Drosophila microRNA, dme-miR-1002, which promotes the splicing of NMNAT pre-mRNA to RB by disrupting a pre-mRNA stem-loop structure. NMNAT pre-mRNA is preferentially spliced to RA in basal conditions, whereas miR-1002 enhances NMNAT PD-mediated stress protection by binding via RISC component Argonaute1 to the pre-mRNA, facilitating the splicing switch to RB. These results outline a new process for microRNAs in regulating alternative splicing and modulating stress resistance.

Writers and Readers of DNA Methylation/Hydroxymethylation in Physiological Aging and Its Impact on Cognitive Function

The chromatin landscape has acquired deep attention from several fields ranging from cell biology to neurological and psychiatric diseases. The role that DNA modifications have on gene expression regulation has become apparent in several physiological processes, and numerous efforts have been performed to establish a relationship between DNA modifications and physiological conditions, such as cognitive performance and aging. DNA modifications are incorporated by specific sets of enzymes-the writers-and the modified DNA-interacting partners-the readers-are ultimately responsible for maintaining a functional epigenetic landscape. Therefore, understanding how these epigenetic mediators-writers and readers-are modulated in physiological aging will contribute to unraveling how aging-associated neuronal disturbances arise and contribute to the cognitive decline associated with this period of life. In this review, we focused on DNA modifications, writers and readers, highlighting that despite some methodological disparities, the evidence suggests a critical role for epigenetic mediators in the aging-associated neuronal dysfunction.

Regulation of Brain DNA Methylation Factors and of the Orexinergic System by Cocaine and Food Self-Administration

Inhibitors of DNA methylation and orexin type-1 receptor antagonists modulate the neurobiological effects driving drugs of abuse and natural reinforcers by activating common brain structures of the mesolimbic reward system. In this study, we applied a self-administration paradigm to assess the involvement of factors regulating DNA methylation processes and satiety or appetite signals. These factors include Dnmts and Tets, miR-212/132, orexins, and orx-R1 genes. The study focused on dopamine projection areas such as the prefrontal cortex (PFCx) and caudate putamen (CPu) and in the hypothalamus (HP) that is interconnected with the reward system. Striking changes were observed in response to both reinforcers, but differed depending on contingent and non-contingent delivery. Expression also differed in the PFCx and the CPu. Cocaine and food induced opposite effects on Dnmt3a expression in both brain structures, whereas they repressed both miRs to a different extent, without affecting their primary transcript in the CPu. Unexpectedly, orexin mRNAs were found in the CPu, suggesting a transport from their transcription site in the HP. The orexin receptor1 gene was found to be induced by cocaine in the PFCx, consistent with a regulation by DNA methylation. Global levels of 5-methylcytosines in the PFCx were not significantly altered by cocaine, suggesting that it is rather their distribution that contributes to long-lasting behaviors. Together, our data demonstrate that DNA methylation regulating factors are differentially altered by cocaine and food. At the molecular level, they support the idea that neural circuits activated by both reinforcers do not completely overlap.

New insights into the transcriptional regulation of aquaporin-2 and the treatment of X-linked hereditary nephrogenic diabetes insipidus

The kidney collecting duct (CD) is a tubular segment of the kidney where the osmolality and final flow rate of urine are established, enabling urine concentration and body water homeostasis. Water reabsorption in the CD depends on the action of arginine vasopressin (AVP) and a transepithelial osmotic gradient between the luminal fluid and surrounding interstitium. AVP induces transcellular water reabsorption across CD principal cells through associated signaling pathways after binding to arginine vasopressin receptor 2 (AVPR2). This signaling cascade regulates the water channel protein aquaporin-2 (AQP2). AQP2 is exclusively localized in kidney connecting tubules and CDs. Specifically, AVP stimulates the intracellular translocation of AQP2-containing vesicles to the apical plasma membrane, increasing the osmotic water permeability of CD cells. Moreover, AVP induces transcription of the Aqp2 gene, increasing AQP2 protein abundance. This review provides new insights into the transcriptional regulation of the Aqp2 gene in the kidney CD with an overview of AVP and AQP2. It summarizes current therapeutic approaches for X-linked nephrogenic diabetes insipidus caused by AVPR2 gene mutations.

Vasopressin-aquaporin-2 pathway: recent advances in understanding water balance disorders

The alteration of water balance and related disorders has emerged as being strictly linked to the state of activation of the vasopressin–aquaporin-2 (vasopressin–AQP2) pathway. The lack of responsiveness of the kidney to the vasopressin action impairs its ability to concentrate the urine, resulting in polyuria, polydipsia, and risk of severe dehydration for patients. Conversely, non-osmotic release of vasopressin is associated with an increase in water permeability in the renal collecting duct, producing water retention and increasing the circulatory blood volume. This review highlights some of the new insights and recent advances in therapeutic intervention targeting the dysfunctions in the vasopressin–AQP2 pathway causing diseases characterized by water balance disorders such as congenital nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion, nephrogenic syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis, and autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. The recent clinical data suggest that targeting the vasopressin–AQP2 axis can provide therapeutic benefits in patients with water balance disorders.