Mapping kidney tubule diameter ex vivo by diffusion MRI

Polyethylene Glycol-Based Hydrogel as a 3D Extracellular Matrix Mimic for Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes

Three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models enable us to understand cell behavior that is a better reflection of what occurs in vivo than 2D in vitro models. As a result, developing 3D models for extracellular matrix (ECM) has been growing exponentially. Most of the efforts for these 3D models are geared toward understanding cancer cells. An intricate network of cells that engages with cancer cells and can kill them are the immune cells, particularly cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). However, limited reports are available for 3D ECM mimics to understand CTL dynamics. Currently, we lack ECM mimetic hydrogels for immune cells, with sufficient control over variables, such as stiffness, to fully understand CTL dynamics in vitro. Here, we developed PEG-based hydrogels as ECM mimics for CTLs. The ECM mimics are targeted to mimic the stiffness of soft tissues where CTLs reside, migrate, and deliver their function. To understand cell-material interaction, we determined the porosity, biocompatibility, and stiffness of the ECM mimics. The ECM mimics have median pore sizes of 10.7 and 13.3 μm, close to the average nucleus size of CTLs (~8.6 μm), and good biocompatibility to facilitate cell migration. The stiffness of the ECM mimics corresponds to biologically relevant microenvironments such as lungs and kidneys. Using time-lapse fluorescence microscopy, 3D cell migration was imaged and measured. CTLs migrated faster in softer ECM mimic with larger pores, consistent with previous studies in collagen (the gold standard ECM mimic for CTLs). The work herein demonstrates that the PEG-based ECM mimic can serve as an in vitro tool to elucidate the cell dynamics of CTLs. Thus, this study opens possibilities to study the mechanics of CTLs in well-defined ECM mimic conditions in vitro.

Probing Renal Microstructure and Function with Advanced Diffusion MRI: Concepts, Applications, Challenges, and Future Directions

Diffusion measurements in the kidney are affected not only by renal microstructure but also by physiological processes (i.e., glomerular filtration, water reabsorption, and urine formation). Because of the superposition of passive tissue diffusion, blood perfusion, and tubular pre-urine flow, the limitations of the monoexponential apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) model in assessing pathophysiological changes in renal tissue are becoming apparent and motivate the development of more advanced diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) variants. These approaches take advantage of the fact that the length scale probed in DWI measurements can be adjusted by experimental parameters, including diffusion-weighting, diffusion gradient directions and diffusion time. This forms the basis by which advanced DWI models can be used to capture not only passive diffusion effects, but also microcirculation, compartmentalization, tissue anisotropy. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in the field of renal DWI. Following a short introduction on renal structure and physiology, we present the key methodological approaches for the acquisition and analysis of renal DWI data, including intravoxel incoherent motion (IVIM), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), non-Gaussian diffusion, and hybrid IVIM-DTI. We then briefly summarize the applications of these methods in chronic kidney disease and renal allograft dysfunction. Finally, we discuss the challenges and potential avenues for further development of renal DWI. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 5 TECHNICAL EFFICACY: Stage 2.

Dimensions of muddy brown granular casts in patients with acute tubular injury

BACKGROUND

The presence of "muddy" brown granular casts (MBGC) in the urine sediment is pathognomonic for acute tubular injury (ATI). Although MBGC have been noted for years, there are no reports regarding their length nor width. The objective of this study was to measure MBGC using images obtained by light microscopy and investigate associations with clinically relevant parameters.

METHODS

Patients with diagnosis of ATI as evidenced by visualization of abundant MBGC (>30% low power fields) were sampled. Bright-field images were measured using ImageJ. Twenty-five patients were included: 44% women; median age 64 yrs; 52% white, 36% black. Mean MBGC width (n = 350) was 34.4 ± 13.1 µm (range: 9 to 110 µm).

RESULTS

Mean MBGC length was 98.7 ± 42.7 µm (range: 33 to 317 µm). Based on a previous report of cortical tubular diameters, MBGC width corresponded well with the median reported range. MBGC width was positively correlated with patient height (ρ=0.41, p=0.04), and length was positively correlated with fractional excretion of sodium (ρ=0.57. p=0.02) and urine chloride concentration (ρ=0.90, p=0.001). Mean MBGC length was negatively correlated with age (ρ=-0.47, p=0.02) and urine phosphate concentration (ρ=-0.72, p=0.03). There were no differences between cases that required renal replacement therapy (RRT, n =10) and those that did not require RRT (n=15).

CONCLUSION

This is the first study reporting dimensions of MBGC from cases with ATI. Clinical implications of these observations require further study.

Spatial profiling of in vivo diffusion-weighted MRI parameters in the healthy human kidney

OBJECTIVE

Diffusion-weighted MRI is a technique that can infer microstructural and microcirculatory features from biological tissue, with particular application to renal tissue. There is extensive literature on diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) of anisotropy in the renal medulla, intravoxel incoherent motion (IVIM) measurements separating microstructural from microcirculation effects, and combinations of the two. However, interpretation of these features and adaptation of more specific models remains an ongoing challenge. One input to this process is a whole organ distillation of corticomedullary contrast of diffusion metrics, as has been explored for other renal biomarkers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this work, we probe the spatial dependence of diffusion MRI metrics with concentrically layered segmentation in 11 healthy kidneys at 3 T. The metrics include those from DTI, IVIM, a combined approach titled "REnal Flow and Microstructure AnisotroPy (REFMAP)", and a multiply encoded model titled "FC-IVIM" providing estimates of fluid velocity and branching length.

RESULTS

Fractional anisotropy decreased from the inner kidney to the outer kidney with the strongest layer correlation in both parenchyma (including cortex and medulla) and medulla with Spearman correlation coefficients and p-values (r, p) of (0.42, <0.001) and (0.37, <0.001), respectively. Also, dynamic parameters derived from the three models significantly decreased with a high correlation from the inner to the outer parenchyma or medulla with (r, p) ranges of (0.46-0.55, <0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

These spatial trends might find implications for indirect assessments of kidney physiology and microstructure using diffusion MRI.

Cardiac Phase and Flow Compensation Effects on REnal Flow and Microstructure AnisotroPy MRI in Healthy Human Kidney

BACKGROUND

Renal diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) involves microstructure and microcirculation, quantified with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), intravoxel incoherent motion (IVIM), and hybrid models. A better understanding of their contrast may increase specificity.

PURPOSE

To measure modulation of DWI with cardiac phase and flow-compensated (FC) diffusion gradient waveforms.

STUDY TYPE

Prospective.

POPULATION

Six healthy volunteers (ages: 22-48 years, five females), water phantom.

FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE

3-T, prototype DWI sequence with 2D echo-planar imaging, and bipolar (BP) or FC gradients. 2D Half-Fourier Single-shot Turbo-spin-Echo (HASTE). Multiple-phase 2D spoiled gradient-echo phase contrast (PC) MRI.

ASSESSMENT

BP and FC water signal decays were qualitatively compared. Renal arteries and velocities were visualized on PC-MRI. Systolic (peak velocity), diastolic (end stable velocity), and pre-systolic (before peak velocity) phases were identified. Following mutual information-based retrospective self-registration of DWI within each kidney, and Marchenko-Pastur Principal Component Analysis (MPPCA) denoising, combined IVIM-DTI analysis estimated mean diffusivity (MD), fractional anisotropy (FA), and eigenvalues (λi) from tissue diffusivity (Dt ), perfusion fraction (fp ), and pseudodiffusivity (Dp , Dp,axial , Dp,radial ), for each tissue (cortex/medulla, segmented on b0/FA respectively), phase, and waveform (BP, FC). Monte Carlo water diffusion simulations aided data interpretation.

STATISTICAL TESTS

Mixed model regression probed differences between tissue types and pulse sequences. Univariate general linear model analysis probed variations among cardiac phases. Spearman correlations were measured between diffusion metrics and renal artery velocities. Statistical significance level was set at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

Water BP and FC signal decays showed no differences. Significant pulse sequence dependence occurred for λ1 , λ3 , FA, Dp , fp , Dp,axial , Dp,radial in cortex and medulla, and medullary λ2 . Significant cortex/medulla differences occurred with BP for all metrics except MD (systole [P = 0.224]; diastole [P = 0.556]). Significant phase dependence occurred for Dp , Dp,axial , Dp,radial for BP and medullary λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , MD for FC. FA correlated significantly with velocity. Monte Carlo simulations indicated medullary measurements were consistent with a 34 μm tubule diameter.

DATA CONCLUSION

Cardiac gating and flow compensation modulate of measurements of renal diffusion.

EVIDENCE LEVEL

2 TECHNICAL EFFICACY STAGE: 2.