Heme oxygenase: the key to renal function regulation

Evaluation of the cellular effects of silica particles used for dermal application

The cellular effects of 5 types of spherical amorphous silica particles whose particle size were 4.2-12.8 μm for cosmetic use and two types of crystalline silica whose particle size were 2.4 and 7.1 μm particles for industrial use were examined. These silica particles were applied to HaCaT human keratinocytes for 24 hr. Crystalline silica enhanced IL-8 and IL-6 expression and caused cell membrane damage. Crystalline silica also enhanced HO-1 gene expression; however, the level of intracellular ROS did not change. Compared with crystalline silica, the cellular effects of the spherical silica employed in this study were minor. Cellular uptake of particles was observed for all of silica particle types. Cellular uptake of crystalline silica was observed 1 hr after exposure, and internalized silica particles were present in the cytoplasm. When HaCaT cells were exposed to crystalline silica for 1 hr and incubated for 23 hr in culture medium without silica particles, IL-8 expression was still detected. In addition, silica particles exerted negligible effects using a 3D skin tissue model. Thus, the following conclusions may be drawn. (1) cellular effects exerted by spherical silica are less compared to crystalline silica. (2) phagocytosis of particles is an important first step in the cellular effects of silica particles. (3) spherical silica particles might exert little, if any, effect on healthy skin attributed to no apparent cellular uptake.

Emerging Role of Ferroptosis in Diabetic Kidney Disease: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is one of the most common and severe microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus (DM), and has become the leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) worldwide. Although the exact pathogenic mechanism of DKD is still unclear, programmed cell death has been demonstrated to participate in the occurrence and development of diabetic kidney injury, including ferroptosis. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of cell death driven by lipid peroxidation, has been identified to play a vital role in the development and therapeutic responses of a variety of kidney diseases, such as acute kidney injury (AKI), renal cell carcinoma and DKD. In the past two years, ferroptosis has been well investigated in DKD patients and animal models, but the specific mechanisms and therapeutic effects have not been fully revealed. Herein, we reviewed the regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis, summarized the recent findings associated with the involvement of ferroptosis in DKD, and discussed the potential of ferroptosis as a promising target for DKD treatment, thereby providing a valuable reference for basic study and clinical therapy of DKD.

Evaluation of toxicity of polystyrene microplastics under realistic exposure levels in human vascular endothelial EA.hy926 cells

Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a global concern, with a recent study being the first to detect them in the bloodstream of healthy people. However, precise information regarding the toxic effects of MPs on the human vascular system is currently lacking. In this study, we used human vascular endothelial EA. hy926 cells to examine the toxic potential of polystyrene MPs (PSMPs) under realistic blood concentrations. Our findings indicated that PSMPs can cause oxidative stress by reducing the expression of antioxidants, thereby leading to apoptotic cytotoxicity in EA. hy926 cells. Furthermore, the protective potential of heat shock proteins can be reduced by PSMPs. PSMP-induced apoptosis might also lower the expression of rho-associated protein kinase-1 and nuclear factor-κB expression, thus dampening LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 in EA. hy926 cells. Moreover, we observed that PSMPs induce vascular barrier dysfunction via the depletion of zonula occludens-1 protein. However, although protein expression of the nuclear hormone receptor 77 was inhibited, no significant increase in ectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 was noted in PSMP-treated EA. hy926 cells. These results demonstrate that exposure to PSMPs may not sufficiently increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis. Overall, our research signifies that exposure to realistic blood concentrations of PSMPs is associated with low atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in humans.

Hemin versus erythropoietin: Possible role in Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway in rats with nephrotoxicity

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Gentamycin-induced nephrotoxicity is related to stimulation of oxidative stress and inflammatory cascades leading to apoptotic renal damage. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) induction considered to be an adaptive response against oxidative tissue damage. Our study aimed to investigate the possible nephroprotective role of HO-1 inducers (hemin and erythropoietin (EPO)) and elucidate their potential underlying molecular mechanisms by assessing their antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory properties.

METHODS

Kidney function markers (urea and creatinine), lipid peroxidation and antioxidant markers (MDA and GPx), inflammation and apoptotic markers (IL-6 and Bcl-2), and the relative gene expression levels of Nrf2 and HO-1 were assessed. Histopathological changes of the kidney were examined.

RESULTS

Nephrotoxic rats pretreated with hemin showed significant decrease in serum level of urea, creatinine, and MDA, compared to non-treated group. The kidney tissues also showed significant elevation of Bcl2 level, but significant decrease of IL-6, compared to non-treated group. Moreover, hemin pre-treatment significantly upregulated gene expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 in kidney tissue to near the normal control group. On the other hand, pretreatment with EPO showed significant upregulation of HO-1 gene expression but didn't show significant difference in Nrf2 gene expression compared to control group. The histopathological examination of kidney supported the biochemical results.

CONCLUSION

The current results proved that hemin rather than EPO, showed reno-protective effects in rats, which was mediated by activation of Nrf2 signaling pathway. This could be also attributed to the observed anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties of hemin. In this regard, EPO showed lower potency.

Sexual dimorphism in renal heme oxygenase-1 and arachidonic acid metabolizing enzymes in spontaneously hypertensive rats versus normotensive Wistar Kyoto rats

Numerous studies have demonstrated a sexual dimorphism in blood pressure (BP) control in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), however the mechanisms remain to be further elucidated. Based on the established role of arachidonic acid metabolites and heme oxygenase (HO) in BP control, we hypothesize that higher BP in male SHR is associated with differential expression in renal HO and arachidonic acid metabolizing enzymes vs. female SHR. Higher BP in male SHR coincided with significant increases in renal cortical superoxide production and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) levels as measures of oxidative stress compared to normotensive female WKY and female SHR. The elevations in BP and oxidative stress in male SHR were also associated with a decrease in cortical heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression when compared to normotensive female WKY. Although there was no sex or strain differences in cortical expression of the epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) producing enzyme, cytochrome P450 epoxygenase (CYP2C23), in male and female SHR and WKY, SHR had greater expression of the EETs metabolizing enzyme, soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) vs. WKY. Cortical expression of the 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) producing enzyme, cytochrome P450 hydroxylase (CYP4A), was less in female WKY and SHR compared to strain-matched males and cortical 20-HETE levels were also less in female SHR vs. male SHR. Cortical cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression was significantly greater in female SHR and WKY vs. males and cortical prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels in female SHR was significantly greater than male WKY. In conclusion, our data suggest that sex differences in renal oxidative stress, HO-1 and arachidonic acid metabolizing enzymes could contribute to sexual dimorphism in hypertension in young SHR.

The nephrotoxic potential of polystyrene microplastics at realistic environmental concentrations

As microplastics (MPs) dispersed into the environment, people might be exposed to MPs. Most pollutants either pass through or concentrate in the kidney. Therefore, nephrotoxicity tests are needed to verify the toxic potential of MPs. Here we used human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells to determine the association between nephrotoxicity and round-shape polystyrene MPs (PSMPs) (3.54 ± 0.39 μm) under realistic environmental exposure concentrations. Results revealed that PSMPs can adhere to the cell membrane and get entirely engulfed by HEK293 cells. PSMPs can induce cytotoxicity by oxidative stress via inhibition of the antioxidant haem oxygenase-1. Depolarisation of the mitochondrial membrane potential and formation of autophagosomes confirmed that apoptosis and autophagy can be simultaneously induced by PSMPs. The inflammatory factor was only activated (33 cytokines) by noncytotoxic concentration of PSMPs (3 ng/mL); however, the cytotoxic concentration (300 ng/mL) of PSMPs induced autophagy, which might further reduce NLRP3 expression, thus contributing to dampening inflammation (35 cytokines) in HEK293 cells. PSMPs (300 ng/mL) can impair kidney barrier integrity and increase the probability of developing acute kidney injury through the depletion of the zonula occludens-2 proteins and α1-antitrypsin. Altogether, our results demonstrated that environmental exposure to PSMPs may lead to an increased risk of renal disease.

Role of heme oxygenase in the regulation of the renal hemodynamics in a model of sex-dependent programmed hypertension by maternal diabetes

Intrauterine programming of cardiovascular and renal function occurs in diabetes because of the adverse maternal environment. Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and -2 (HO-2) exert vasodilatory and antioxidant actions, particularly in conditions of elevated HO-1 expression or deficient nitric oxide levels. We evaluated whether the activity of the heme-HO system is differentially regulated by oxidative stress in the female offspring of diabetic mothers, contributing to the improved cardiovascular function in comparison with males. Diabetes was induced in pregnant rats by a single dose of streptozotocin (STZ, 50 mg/kg ip) in late gestation. Three-month-old male offspring from diabetic mothers (MODs) exhibited higher blood pressure (BP), higher renal vascular resistance (RVR), worse endothelium-dependent response to acetylcholine (ACH), and an increased constrictor response to phenylephrine (PHE) compared with those in age-matched female offspring of diabetic mothers (FODs), which were abolished by chronic tempol (1 mM) treatment. In anesthetized animals, stannous mesoporphyrin (SnMP; 40 µmol/kg iv) administration, to inhibit HO activity, increased RVR in FODs and reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in MODs, without altering these parameters in control animals. When compared with MODs, FODs showed lower nitrotirosyne levels and higher HO-1 protein expression in renal homogenates. Indeed, chronic treatment with tempol in MODs prevented elevations in nitrotyrosine levels and the acute renal hemodynamics response to SnMP. Then, maternal diabetes results in sex-specific hypertension and renal alterations associated with oxidative stress mainly in adult male offspring, which are reduced in the female offspring by elevation in HO-1 expression and lower oxidative stress levels.

Effects of Sodium Thiosulfate During Resuscitation From Trauma-and-Hemorrhage in Cystathionine Gamma Lyase (CSE) Knockout Mice

BACKGROUND

Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) is a clinically established drug with antioxidant and sulphide-releasing properties. Na2S2O3 mediated neuro- and cardioprotective effects in ischemia/reperfusion models and anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-induced acute lung injury. Moreover, Na2S2O3 improved lung function during resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock in swine with pre-existing atherosclerosis, characterized by decreased expression of cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), a major source of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) synthesis in the vasculature. Based on these findings, we investigated the effects of Na2S2O3 administration during resuscitation from trauma-and-hemorrhage in mice under conditions of whole body CSE deficit.

METHODS

After blast wave-induced blunt chest trauma and surgical instrumentation, CSE knockout (CSE-/-) mice underwent 1 h of hemorrhagic shock (MAP 35 ± 5 mm Hg). At the beginning of resuscitation comprising retransfusion, norepinephrine support and lung-protective mechanical ventilation, animals received either i.v. Na2S2O3 (0.45 mg g-1, n = 12) or vehicle (saline, n = 13). Hemodynamics, acid-base status, metabolism using stable isotopes, and visceral organ function were assessed. Blood and organs were collected for analysis of cytokines, mitochondrial respiratory capacity, and immunoblotting.

RESULTS

Na2S2O3 treatment improved arterial paO2 (P = 0.03) coinciding with higher lung tissue glucocorticoid receptor expression. Norepinephrine requirements were lower in the Na2S2O3 group (P < 0.05), which was associated with lower endogenous glucose production and higher urine output. Na2S2O3 significantly increased renal tissue IκBα and heme oxygenase-1 expression, whereas it lowered kidney IL-6 and MCP-1 levels.

CONCLUSION

Na2S2O3 exerted beneficial effects during resuscitation of murine trauma-and-hemorrhage in CSE-/- mice, confirming and extending the previously described organ-protective and anti-inflammatory properties of Na2S2O3. The findings make Na2S2O3 a potentially promising therapeutic option in the context of impaired CSE activity and/or reduced endogenous H2S availability.

The Modulation of Nrf-2/HO-1 Signaling Axis by Carthamus tinctorius L. Alleviates Vascular Inflammation in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

Carthamus tinctorius L., known as safflower, has been used in traditional treatment for cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and diabetic vascular complications. We proposed to investigate how the ethanol extract of Carthamus tinctorius L. (ECT) can be used ethnopharmacologically and alleviate vascular inflammatory processes under cytokine stimulation in human vascular endothelial cells. Using the optimized HPLC method, six markers were simultaneously analyzed for quality control of ECT. Pretreatment with ECT (10–100 μg/mL) significantly reduced the increase of leukocyte adhesion to HUVEC by TNF-α in a dose-dependent manner. Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) such as intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and endothelial cell selectin (E-selectin) are decreased by ECT. In addition, ECT significantly suppressed TNF-α-induced oxidative stress referring to reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. p65 NF-κB nuclear translocation and its activation were inhibited by ECT. Furthermore, pretreatment of ECT increased the HO-1 expression, and nuclear translocation of Nrf-2. These data suggest the potential role of ECT as a beneficial therapeutic herb in vascular inflammation via ROS/NF-kB pathway and the regulation of Nrf-2/HO-1 signaling axis is involved in its vascular protection. Thus, further study will be needed to clarify which compound is dominant for protection of vascular diseases.

Copper induces oxidative stress and apoptosis of hippocampal neuron via pCREB/BDNF/ and Nrf2/HO-1/NQO1 pathway

Disordered copper metabolism has been suggested to occur to several neurological conditions, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. However, the underlying mechanism was still unclear. This might link to copper-induced hippocampal neuronal apoptosis and decrease in neurons viability. Our vitro experiment showed copper exposure induced oxidative stress and promoted apoptosis of HT22 murine hippocampal neuronal cell. Mechanistically, we found copper, on the one hand, prevented phosphorylation of cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) to decrease expression its downstream target protein Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and to decrease mitochondrial membrane potential and Bcl-2/Bax ratio; on the other hand, copper-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), promoted lipid peroxidation, reduced antioxidant enzyme activity of GSH-Px. Copper-induced oxidative damage further decreased the phosphorylation of CREB, decreased expression of Bcl-2, enhanced expression of Bax, and accelerated the dissociation of keap1-Nrf2 complex, promoted the nuclear translocation of Nrf2, stimulate the expression of antioxidant molecules HO-1 and NQO1. In conclusion, we found copper inhibited pCREB/BDNF signaling pathway by prevent CREB from phosphorylation, further found that oxidative damage not only inhibited neuroprotective signaling pathways and induced apoptosis, but activated antioxidant protection signals Nrf2/HO-1/NQO1 signaling pathway.

Importance of Heme Oxygenase-1 in Gastrointestinal Cancers: Functions, Inductions, Regulations, and Signaling

INTRODUCTION : Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the important gastrointestinal tract tumors. Heme is mainly absorbed in the colon and induces nitrosamine formation, genotoxicity,  and oxidative stress, and increases the risk of CRC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information was collected from articles on Scopus, Google Scholar, and PubMed.

RESULTS

Heme can irritate intestinal epithelial cells and increases the proliferation of colonic mucosa. Heme can be considered as a carcinogenic agent for CRC induction. In typical situations, Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is expressed at low concentration in the gastrointestinal tract, but its expression is elevated during lesion and inflammation. Based on the multiple reports, the impact of HO-1 on tumor growth is related to the cancer cell type. Increased HO-1 levels were also indicated in different human and animal malignancies, possibly through its contribution to tumor cell growth, metastasis, expression of angiogenic factors, and resistance to chemotherapy. Recent studies noted that HO-1 can act as an immunomodulator that suppresses immune cell maturation, activation, and infiltration. It also inhibits apoptosis through CO production that leads to p53 suppression. The upregulation of HO-1 significantly increases the endurance of colon cancer cell lines. Therefore, it is supposed that HO-1 inhibitors could become a novel antitumor agent. Lactobacillus rhamnosus and its metabolites can activate Nrf2 and improves anti-oxidant levels along with upregulation of its objective genes like HO-1, and downregulation of NF-κB which reduce phosphorylated TNF-α, IL-1β, and PAI-1.

CONCLUSION

The precise mechanism accountable for the anti-inflammatory features of HO-1 is not completely understood; nevertheless, the CO signaling function associated with the antioxidant property shown by bilirubin possibly will play an act in the improvement of inflammation.

Repeated Administration of Clinical Doses of Tramadol and Tapentadol Causes Hepato- and Nephrotoxic Effects in Wistar Rats

Tramadol and tapentadol are fully synthetic and extensively used analgesic opioids, presenting enhanced therapeutic and safety profiles as compared with their peers. However, reports of adverse reactions, intoxications and fatalities have been increasing. Information regarding the molecular, biochemical, and histological alterations underlying their toxicological potential is missing, particularly for tapentadol, owing to its more recent market authorization. Considering the paramount importance of liver and kidney for the metabolism and excretion of both opioids, these organs are especially susceptible to toxicological damage. In the present study, we aimed to characterize the putative hepatic and renal deleterious effects of repeated exposure to therapeutic doses of tramadol and tapentadol, using an in vivo animal model. Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six experimental groups, composed of six animals each, which received daily single intraperitoneal injections of 10, 25 or 50 mg/kg tramadol or tapentadol (a low, standard analgesic dose, an intermediate dose and the maximum recommended daily dose, respectively). An additional control group was injected with normal saline. Following 14 consecutive days of administration, serum, urine and liver and kidney tissue samples were processed for biochemical, metabolic and histological analysis. Repeated administration of therapeutic doses of both opioids led to: (i) increased lipid and protein oxidation in liver and kidney, as well as to decreased total liver antioxidant capacity; (ii) decreased serum albumin, urea, butyrylcholinesterase and complement C3 and C4 levels, denoting liver synthesis impairment; (iii) elevated serum activity of liver enzymes, such as alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, as well as lipid profile alterations, also reflecting hepatobiliary commitment; (iv) derangement of iron metabolism, as shown through increases in serum iron, ferritin, haptoglobin and heme oxygenase-1 levels. In turn, elevated serum cystatin C, decreased urine creatinine output and increased urine microalbumin levels were detected upon exposure to tapentadol only, while increased serum amylase and urine N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase activities were observed for both opioids. Collectively, these results are compatible with kidney injury. Changes were also found in the expression levels of liver- and kidney-specific toxicity biomarker genes, upon exposure to tramadol and tapentadol, correlating well with alterations in lipid profile, iron metabolism and glomerular and tubular function. Histopathological analysis evidenced sinusoidal dilatation, microsteatosis, mononuclear cell infiltrates, glomerular and tubular disorganization, and increased Bowman's spaces. Although some findings are more pronounced upon tapentadol exposure, our study shows that, when compared with acute exposure, prolonged administration of both opioids smooths the differences between their toxicological effects, and that these occur at lower doses within the therapeutic range.

5-Aminolevulinic acid exerts renoprotective effect via Nrf2 activation in murine rhabdomyolysis-induced acute kidney injury

AIM

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is associated with chronic kidney disease, as well as high mortality, but effective treatments for AKI are still lacking. A recent study reported the prevention of renal injury, such as ischemia-reperfusion injury, by 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), which induces an antioxidant effect. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of ALA in a rhabdomyolysis-induced mouse model of AKI created by intramuscular injection of 50% glycerol.

METHODS

Rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI was induced by an intramuscular injection of glycerol (5 mL/kg body weight) into mice. Administration of ALA (30 mg/kg, by gavage) was started from 48 h before or 24 h after glycerol injection. The mice were sacrificed at 72 h after glycerol injection. The roles of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), which is one of the Nrf2-related antioxidants, were further investigated through in vivo and in vitro methods.

RESULTS

5-aminolevulinic acid markedly reduced renal dysfunction and tubular damage in mice with rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI. ALA administration decreased oxidative stress, macrophage infiltration, and inflammatory cytokines and apoptosis. The expression of Nrf2 was upregulated by ALA administration. However, administration of Zinc protoporphyrin-9 (ZnPPIX) to inhibit HO-1 activity did not abolish these improvements by ALA. The expression of Nrf2-associated antioxidant factors other than HO-1 was also increased.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that ALA exerts its antioxidant activity via Nrf2-associated antioxidant factors to provide a renoprotective effect against rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI.

Quercetin Reduces Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha-Induced Muscle Atrophy by Upregulation of Heme Oxygenase-1

The inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), upregulated in the obese condition, promotes protein degradation and is implicated in obesity-related skeletal muscle atrophy and age-related sarcopenia. Quercetin, a flavonoid, elicits antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, we investigated the effect of quercetin on TNFα-induced skeletal muscle atrophy as well as its potential mechanism of action. In this study, we observed that quercetin suppressed expression of TNFα-induced atrophic factors such as MAFbx/atrogin-1 and MuRF1 in myotubes, and it enhanced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) protein level accompanied by increased nuclear translocation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in myotubes. The HO-1 inhibitor ZnPP suppressed the inhibitory actions of quercetin on TNFα-induced atrophic responses and degradation of IκB-α in myotubes. Moreover, quercetin supplementation to high-fat diet-fed obese mice inhibited obesity-induced atrophic responses in skeletal muscle, accompanied by upregulation of HO-1 and inactivation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), and the quercetin actions were attenuated in Nrf2-deficient mice. These findings suggest that quercetin protects against TNFα-induced muscle atrophy under obese conditions through Nrf2-mediated HO-1 induction accompanied by inactivation of NF-κB. Quercetin may be used as a dietary supplement to protect against obesity-induced skeletal muscle atrophy.

Association of serum bilirubin with renal outcomes in Han Chinese patients with chronic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress and inflammation play pivotal roles in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Bilirubin is an endogenous anti-inflammatory antioxidant. However, the relationship between serum bilirubin and renal outcomes in CKD is controversial. We explored the association of serum bilirubin levels with renal outcomes in Han Chinese patients with CKD.

METHODS

Clinical and laboratory data were collected from 316 patients with CKD. The primary clinical endpoint was renal replacement therapy or death. The association between serum bilirubin and clinical parameters was assessed by correlation analysis. Multiple Cox regression analysis was used to explore the relationship between serum bilirubin and renal outcomes in patients with CKD.

RESULTS

Serum total and indirect bilirubin were positively correlated with estimated glomerular filtration rate, but negatively correlated with 24-h urine protein in patients with CKD. Serum total and indirect bilirubin were inversely associated with CKD stages in patients with CKD stages 1-5. Multiple Cox regression analysis demonstrated that the higher concentration of serum total bilirubin was independently associated with better renal outcomes in CKD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that serum total bilirubin may have protective effects on kidneys.

Hyperbilirubinemia, Hypertension, and CKD: the Links

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to highlight recent advances on the role of hyperbilirubinemia in hypertension and chronic kidney disease, with a focus on the pathophysiological mechanisms explaining the protective effects of bilirubin. An overview of pharmacologic induction of hyperbilirubinemia will also be discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

The findings depict a protective role of bilirubin in the development of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Hyperbilirubinemia is also negatively correlated with the development and progression of chronic kidney disease. Commonly used drugs play a role in pharmacologic induction of hyperbilirubinemia. Bilirubin is therefore an exciting target for new therapeutic interventions for its antioxidant properties can be pivotal in the management of hypertension and in preventing and halting the progression of chronic kidney disease. Longitudinal studies are warranted to evaluate the prospective association between bilirubin levels and incident hypertension and chronic kidney disease in the general population. Interventions to induce hyperbilirubinemia need to be explored as a novel therapeutic approach in fighting disease burden.

Heme as a Target for Therapeutic Interventions

Heme is a complex of iron and the tetrapyrrole protoporphyrin IX with essential functions in aerobic organisms. Heme is the prosthetic group of hemoproteins such as hemoglobin and myoglobin, which are crucial for reversible oxygen binding and transport. By contrast, high levels of free heme, which may occur in various pathophysiological conditions, are toxic via pro-oxidant, pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic effects. The toxicity of heme plays a major role for the pathogenesis of prototypical hemolytic disorders including sickle cell disease and malaria. Moreover, there is increasing appreciation that detrimental effects of heme may also be critically involved in diseases, which usually are not associated with hemolysis such as severe sepsis and atherosclerosis. In mammalians homeostasis of heme and its potential toxicity are primarily controlled by two physiological systems. First, the scavenger protein hemopexin (Hx) non-covalently binds extracellular free heme with high affinity and attenuates toxicity of heme in plasma. Second, heme oxygenases (HOs), in particular the inducible HO isozyme, HO-1, can provide antioxidant cytoprotection via enzymatic degradation of intracellular heme. This review summarizes current knowledge on the pathophysiological role of heme for various diseases as demonstrated in experimental animal models and in humans. The functional significance of Hx and HOs for the regulation of heme homeostasis is highlighted. Finally, the therapeutic potential of pharmacological strategies that apply Hx and HO-1 in various clinical settings is discussed.

Amelioration of high fat diet-induced nephropathy by cilostazol and rosuvastatin

Multiple comorbidities of metabolic disorders are associated with facilitated chronic kidney disease progression. Anti-platelet cilostazol is used for the treatment of peripheral artery disease. In this study, we investigated the potential beneficial effects of cilostazol and rosuvastatin on metabolic disorder-induced renal dysfunctions. C57BL/6 mice that received high fat diet (HFD) for 22 weeks and a low dose of streptozotocin (STZ, 40 mg/kg) developed albuminuria and had increased urinary cystatin C excretion, and cilostazol treatment (13 weeks) improved these markers. Histopathological changes, including glomerular mesangial expansion, tubular vacuolization, apoptosis, and lipid accumulation were ameliorated by cilostazol treatment. Tubulointerstitial fibrosis that was indicated by the increases in collagen and transforming growth factor-β1 subsided by cilostazol. Renoprotective effects were also observed in rosuvastatin-treated mice, and combinatorial treatment with cilostazol and rosuvastatin demonstrated enhanced ameliorative effects in histopathological evaluations. Notably, repressed renal heme oxygenase-1 (Ho-1) level in HFD/STZ mice was restored in cilostazol group. Further, we demonstrated that cilostazol enhanced Nrf2/Ho-1 signaling in cultured proximal tubular epithelial cells. Collectively, these results suggest the potential advantageous use of cilostazol as an adjunctive therapy with statins for the amelioration of metabolic disorder-associated renal injury.

Overexpression of angiotensinogen downregulates aquaporin 1 expression via modulation of Nrf2-HO-1 pathway in renal proximal tubular cells of transgenic mice

Introduction:

We aimed to examine the regulation of aquaporin 1 expression in an angiotensinogen transgenic mouse model, focusing on underlying mechanisms.

Methods:

Male transgenic mice overexpressing rat angiotensinogen in their renal proximal tubular cells (RPTCs) and rat immortalised RPTCs stably transfected with rat angiotensinogen cDNA were used.

Results:

Angiotensinogen-transgenic mice developed hypertension and nephropathy, changes that were either partially or completely attenuated by treatment with losartan or dual renin–angiotensin system blockade (losartan and perindopril), respectively, while hydralazine prevented hypertension but not nephropathy. Decreased expression of aquaporin 1 and heme oxygenase-1 and increased expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and sodium–hydrogen exchanger 3 were observed in RPTCs of angiotensinogen-transgenic mice and in angiotensinogen-transfected immortalised RPTCs. These parameters were normalised by dual renin–angiotensin system blockade. Both in vivo and in vitro studies identified a novel mechanism in which angiotensinogen overexpression in RPTCs enhances the cytosolic accumulation of Nrf2 via the phosphorylation of pGSK3β Y216. Consequently, lower intranuclear Nrf2 levels are less efficient to trigger heme oxygenase-1 expression as a defence mechanism, which subsequently diminishes aquaporin 1 expression in RPTCs.

Conclusions:

Angiotensinogen-mediated downregulation of aquaporin 1 and Nrf2 signalling may play an important role in intrarenal renin–angiotensin system-induced hypertension and kidney injury.

Modulation of antigen processing by haem-oxygenase 1. Implications on inflammation and tolerance

Haem-oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an enzyme responsible for the degradation of haem that can suppress inflammation, through the production of carbon monoxide (CO). It has been shown in several experimental models that genetic and pharmacological induction of HO-1, as well as non-toxic administration of CO, can reduce inflammatory diseases, such as endotoxic shock, type 1 diabetes and graft rejection. Recently, it was shown that the HO-1/CO system can alter the function of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and reduce T-cell priming, which can be beneficial during immune-driven inflammatory diseases. The molecular mechanisms by which the HO-1 and CO reduce both APC- and T-cell-driven immunity are just beginning to be elucidated. In this article we discuss recent findings related to the immune regulatory capacity of HO-1 and CO at the level of recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns and T-cell priming by APCs. Finally, we propose a possible regulatory role for HO-1 and CO over the recently described mitochondria-dependent immunity. These concepts could contribute to the design of new therapeutic tools for inflammation-based diseases.

Corynoline Isolated from Corydalis bungeana Turcz. Exhibits Anti-Inflammatory Effects via Modulation of Nfr2 and MAPKs

Corydalis bungeana Turcz. is an anti-inflammatory medicinal herb used widely in traditional Chinese medicine for upper respiratory tract infections. It is demonstrated that corynoline is its active anti-inflammatory component. The nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/antioxidant response element (ARE) pathway and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway play important roles in the regulation of inflammation. In this study, we investigated the potential anti-inflammatory mechanism of corynoline through modulation of Nfr2 and MAPKs. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 cells were used to explore modulatory role of NO production and the activation of signaling proteins and transcription factors using nitrite assay, Western bloting and qPCR. Treatment with corynoline reduced production of nitric oxide (NO) and the protein and mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) Treatment also significantly increased the expression of Nrf2, quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) and hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) at the mRNA and protein levels, which demonstrated that corynoline may protect cells from inflammation through the Nrf2/ARE pathway In addition, corynoline suppressed the expression of inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), at the mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, molecular data revealed that corynoline inhibited lipopolysaccharide-stimulated phosphorylation of c-jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38. Taken together, these results suggest that corynoline reduces the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators, such as iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α and IL-1β, by suppressing extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK) and p38 phosphorylation in RAW264.7 cells, which is regulated by the Nrf2/ARE pathway. These findings reveal part of the molecular basis for the anti-inflammatory properties of corynoline.

Heme oxygenase‑1 protects H2O2‑insulted glomerular mesangial cells from excessive autophagy

Increasing evidence has demonstrated that the activation of heme oxygenase (HO)‑1 reduces autophagy stimulated by oxidative stress injury, in which the supraphysiological production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is detected. However, the potential mechanism underlying this effect remains unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the function of HO‑1 activation in the regulation of autophagy in glomerular mesangial cells subjected to H2O2‑induced oxidative stress injury. The results demonstrated that the HO‑1 agonist, hemin, reduces the LC3 protein level, which was enhanced by H2O2 treatment. Furthermore, hemin‑activated HO‑1 may function as a regulator of oxidative stress‑induced autophagy in a dose‑dependent manner. Pharmacological activation of c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase (JNK) inhibited the effect of hemin, indicating that the JNK signaling pathway is associated with the mechanism of HO‑1 in impeding excessive autophagy. In addition to successfully alleviating H2O2‑induced oxidative stress and cellular apoptosis, hemin‑activated HO‑1 may provide cytoprotection against rapamycin, a specific autophagy agonist. The present result suggested the inhibitory action of HO‑1 in the avoidance of a potentially enhanced linkage between autophagy and apoptosis, particularly in the setting of excessive ROS. Therefore, enhancing the intracellular activity of HO‑1 may assist the crosstalk between oxidative stress, autophagy and apoptosis, and represent a novel therapeutic strategy for renal ischemic disease.

Modulatory Effects of Mild Carbon Monoxide Exposure in the Developing Mouse Cochlea

Carbon monoxide (CO) is well known as a highly toxic poison at high concentrations, yet in physiologic amounts it is an endogenous biological messenger in organs such as the internal ear and brain. In this study we tested the hypothesis that chronic very mild CO exposure at concentrations 25-ppm increases the expression of oxidative stress protecting enzymes within the cellular milieu of the developing inner ear (cochlea) of the normal CD-1 mouse. In addition we tested also the hypothesis that CO can decrease the pre-existing condition of oxidative stress in the mouse model for the human medical condition systemic lupus erythematosus by increasing two protective enzymes heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and superoxide dismutase-2 (SOD-2). CD-1 and MRL/lpr mice were exposed to mild CO concentrations (25 ppm in air) from prenatal only and prenatal followed by early postnatal day 5 to postnatal day 20. The expression of cell markers specific for oxidative stress, and related neural/endothelial markers were investigated at the level of the gene products by immunohistochemistry, proteomics and mRNA expression (quantitative real time-PCR). We found that in the CD-1 and MRL/lpr mouse cochlea SOD-2 and HO-1 were upregulated. In this mouse model of autoimmune disease defense mechanism are attenuated, thus mild CO exposure is beneficial. Several genes (mRNA) and proteins detected by proteomics involved in cellular protection were upregulated in the CO exposed CD-1 mouse and the MRL/lpr mouse.

Penehyclidine Hydrochloride Pretreatment Ameliorates Rhabdomyolysis-Induced AKI by Activating the Nrf2/HO-1 Pathway and Alleviating [corrected] Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Rats. The

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is one of the most severe complications of rhabdomyolysis (RM). The underlying mechanisms and potential preventions need to be investigated. Penehyclidine hydrochloride (PHC) was reported to ameliorate renal ischemia-reperfusion injury, but the effect of PHC on RM-reduced AKI is unknown. In this study, we established a rat model of RM-induced AKI using an intramuscular glycerol injection in the hind limbs. Rats were pretreated with PHC before the glycerol injection, and the heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inhibitor ZnPP was introduced to evaluate the effect of HO-1 on RM-induced AKI. PHC pretreatment ameliorated the pathological renal injury and renal dysfunction, and decreased the renal apoptosis rate in RM-induced AKI. PHC significantly up-regulated HO-1 expression, increased HO-1 enzymatic activity and decreased the accumulation of myoglobin in renal tissues. This effect was partly inhibited by ZnPP. PHC pretreatment also effectively up-regulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and down-regulated glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP78) and caspase-12 at both the gene and protein levels. These results suggest that the protective effects of PHC pretreatment on RM-induced AKI occur at least in part through activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and alleviating endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) in rat renal tissues.

Upregulation of cugbp2 increases response of pancreatic cancer cells to chemotherapy

PURPOSE

Altered expression and/or function of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)-binding proteins CUGBP2/CELF2 might influence post-transcriptional regulation of the HO-1- and COX-2-mediated cytoprotective pathways and represents an important therapeutic target. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of CUGBP2-mediated post-transcriptional regulation of COX-2 and HO-1 in pancreatic cancer cells in regard of response to gemcitabine (GEM) treatment.

METHODS

Expression of CUGBP2, COX-2, and HO-1 was evaluated using qRT-PCR and Western blot methods. Cell viability after treatment with GEM and/or curcumin and siCUGBP2 was evaluated using MTT and crystal violet tests. RNA immunoprecipitation analysis was used to confirm COX-2 and HO-1 post-transcriptional regulation by CUGBP2 protein.

RESULTS

CUGBP2 expression at the messenger RNA (mRNA) level was 2.2-fold lower (p = 0.007), but HO-1 and COX-2 expression was increased 6.9- (p = 0.023) and 2.3- (p = 0.046) fold in pancreatic cancer tissues. The median survival of patients with low CUGBP2 expression from the lowest tercile was 13.8 months. The median survival of patients in terciles of middle and high CUGBP2 expression levels was 21.9 month (p = 0.123). Induction of CUGBP2 expression by curcumin resulted in the downregulation of HO-1 and COX-2 and strongly sensitized tumor cells to GEM treatment. However, CUGBP2 silencing upregulated HO-1 and COX-2 protein expression and had a high effect on cells viability.

CONCLUSION

Decreased activity of CUGBP2 could be associated with high chemoresistance and early dissemination of pancreatic cancer through the HO-1- and COX-2-mediated cytoprotective and carcinogenesis pathways. Curcumin significantly increased the effectiveness of GEM treatment in vitro via the CUGBP2-mediated post-transcriptional regulation pathway.

Heme oxygenase-1 enhances autophagy in podocytes as a protective mechanism against high glucose-induced apoptosis

Injury and loss of podocytes play vital roles in diabetic nephropathy progression. Emerging evidence suggests autophagy, which is induced by multiple stressors including hyperglycemia, plays a protective role. Meanwhile, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) possesses powerful anti-apoptotic properties. Therefore, we investigated the impact of autophagy on podocyte apoptosis under diabetic conditions and its association with HO-1. Mouse podocytes were cultured in vitro; apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry. Transmission electron microscopy and biochemical autophagic flux assays were used to measure the autophagy markers microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-II (LC3-II) and beclin-1. LC3-II and beclin-1 expression peaked 12-24h after exposing podocytes to high glucose. Inhibition of autophagy with 3-methyladenine or Beclin-1 siRNAs or Atg 5 siRNAs sensitized cells to apoptosis, suggesting autophagy is a survival mechanism. HO-1 inactivation inhibited autophagy, which aggravated podocyte injury in vitro. Hemin-induced autophagy also protected podocytes from hyperglycemia in vitro and was abrogated by HO-1 siRNA. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase phosphorylation was higher in hemin-treated and lower in HO-1 siRNA-treated podocytes. Suppression of AMPK activity reversed HO-1-mediated Beclin-1 upregulation and autophagy, indicating HO-1-mediated autophagy is AMPK dependent. These findings suggest HO-1 induction and regulation of autophagy are potential therapeutic targets for diabetic nephropathy.

Renal autoregulation in health and disease

Intrarenal autoregulatory mechanisms maintain renal blood flow (RBF) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) independent of renal perfusion pressure (RPP) over a defined range (80-180 mmHg). Such autoregulation is mediated largely by the myogenic and the macula densa-tubuloglomerular feedback (MD-TGF) responses that regulate preglomerular vasomotor tone primarily of the afferent arteriole. Differences in response times allow separation of these mechanisms in the time and frequency domains. Mechanotransduction initiating the myogenic response requires a sensing mechanism activated by stretch of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and coupled to intracellular signaling pathways eliciting plasma membrane depolarization and a rise in cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)]i). Proposed mechanosensors include epithelial sodium channels (ENaC), integrins, and/or transient receptor potential (TRP) channels. Increased [Ca(2+)]i occurs predominantly by Ca(2+) influx through L-type voltage-operated Ca(2+) channels (VOCC). Increased [Ca(2+)]i activates inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP3R) and ryanodine receptors (RyR) to mobilize Ca(2+) from sarcoplasmic reticular stores. Myogenic vasoconstriction is sustained by increased Ca(2+) sensitivity, mediated by protein kinase C and Rho/Rho-kinase that favors a positive balance between myosin light-chain kinase and phosphatase. Increased RPP activates MD-TGF by transducing a signal of epithelial MD salt reabsorption to adjust afferent arteriolar vasoconstriction. A combination of vascular and tubular mechanisms, novel to the kidney, provides for high autoregulatory efficiency that maintains RBF and GFR, stabilizes sodium excretion, and buffers transmission of RPP to sensitive glomerular capillaries, thereby protecting against hypertensive barotrauma. A unique aspect of the myogenic response in the renal vasculature is modulation of its strength and speed by the MD-TGF and by a connecting tubule glomerular feedback (CT-GF) mechanism. Reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide are modulators of myogenic and MD-TGF mechanisms. Attenuated renal autoregulation contributes to renal damage in many, but not all, models of renal, diabetic, and hypertensive diseases. This review provides a summary of our current knowledge regarding underlying mechanisms enabling renal autoregulation in health and disease and methods used for its study.

Curcumin protects renal tubular epithelial cells from high glucose-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition through Nrf2-mediated upregulation of heme oxygenase-1

Curcumin has been observed to exhibit an anti-fibrotic effect in the liver, lung and gallbladder. However, the mechanisms underlying the cytoprotective effects of curcumin remain to be elucidated. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of mature tubular epithelial cells in the kidney is considered to contribute to the renal accumulation of matrix proteins associated with diabetic nephropathy. The EMT is also closely associated with the progression of renal interstitial fibrosis and oxidative stress. This process may occur through abrogation of high glucose (HG)-induced oxidative stress via activation of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in kidney tubular epithelial cells. In the present study, the effect of curcumin on HG-induced EMT in the NRK-52E normal rat kidney tubular epithelial cell line was investigated, and whether the effect of curcumin was mediated by the induction of Nrf2 and HO-1 expression was examined. The present study revealed that curcumin was able to prevent events associated with EMT, including the downregulation of E-cadherin and the increased expression of α-smooth muscle actin. Further analysis revealed that the expression levels of Nrf2 and HO-1 protein were elevated to a greater extent in the curcumin pretreated NRK-52E cells compared with those of the control. Notably, knockdown of Nrf2 with small interfering RNA prevented the curcumin-induced elevation in expression of HO-1 and the associated anti-fibrotic effects. In conclusion, the present findings suggested that curcumin may be significant in cellular antioxidant defense, through the activation of Nrf2 and HO-1, thereby protecting the NRK-52E cells from HG-induced EMT.

Hemin attenuates cisplatin-induced acute renal injury in male rats

Background. The aim of this study is to investigate the protective effects of hemin (the heme oxygenase-1 [OH-1] inducer) against nephrotoxic effects induced by cisplatin [cis-diamminedichloroplatinum II (CP)] in male rats. Methods. The evaluation was performed through monitoring renal redox parameters: lipid peroxidation (LPO), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), and reduced glutathione (GSH). The work also examined renal function tests (urea and creatinine), tissue proinflammatory mediator like nitric oxide (NO), and kidney cytopathology. Results. A single intraperitoneal dose of CP (10 mg/kg b.w.) caused significant elevation of blood urea, serum creatinine, and renal LPO and NO, along with significant decline of the activities of GPx and GR, but renal SOD activity and GSH level were statistically insignificant as compared to control group. Subcutaneous injection of hemin (40 µmol/kg b.w.) partially ameliorated CP-induced renal damage, based on suppression of blood urea, serum creatinine, the renal MDA and NO levels, and increased antioxidant capacity in CP-treated rats. The results of histopathological and ultrastructural investigations supported the renoprotective effect of hemin against CP-induced acute toxicity. Conclusion. The induction of HO-1 by hemin is a promising approach in the treatment of CP-induced nephrotoxicity. However, further preclinical studies are warranted to test effectiveness of CP/hemin on the outcome of tumor chemotherapy.

Bilirubin and progression of nephropathy in type 2 diabetes: a post hoc analysis of RENAAL with independent replication in IDNT

Bilirubin, a potent endogenous antioxidant, was found to protect against the development of diabetic nephropathy (DN) in rodents. In humans, cross-sectional studies found an inverse relation between bilirubin and DN. We prospectively investigated whether bilirubin is associated with progression of DN toward end-stage renal disease (ESRD). To this end, we performed a post hoc analysis in the Reduction of Endpoints in NIDDM with the Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan (RENAAL) trial with independent replication in the Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial (IDNT). Subjects with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy with alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and bilirubin levels <1.5 times the upper limit of normal were included. The renal end point was defined as the composite of confirmed doubling of serum creatinine or ESRD. Bilirubin was inversely associated with the renal end point in RENAAL independent of age, sex, race, BMI, smoking, total cholesterol, diastolic blood pressure, HbA1c, treatment, estimated glomerular filtration rate, albumin-to-creatinine ratio, and AST. These results were confirmed in IDNT. This study indicates an independent inverse association of bilirubin with progression of nephropathy in RENAAL and IDNT. These data suggest a protective effect of bilirubin against progression of nephropathy in type 2 diabetes. The well-established role of bilirubin as an antioxidant is a potential explanation for the findings.

Heme oxygenase-1 and acute kidney injury

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Heme oxygenase activity, possessed by an inducible heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and a constitutive isoform (HO-2), catalyzes the conversion of heme to biliverdin, liberates iron, and generates carbon monoxide. First shown in acute kidney injury (AKI), HO-1 is now recognized as a protectant against diverse insults in assorted tissues. This review summarizes recent contributions to the field of HO-1 and AKI.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent findings elucidate the following: the transcriptional regulation and significance of human HO-1 in AKI; the protective effects of HO-1 in age-dependent and sepsis-related AKI, cardiorenal syndromes, and acute vascular rejection in renal xenografts; the role of heme oxygenase in tubuloglomerular feedback and renal resistance to injury; the basis for cytoprotection by HO-1; the protective properties of ferritin and carbon monoxide; HO-1 and the AKI-chronic kidney disease transition; HO-1 as a biomarker in AKI; the role of HO-1 in mediating the protective effects of specific cytokines, stem cells, and therapeutic agents in AKI; and HO-2 as a protectant in AKI.

SUMMARY

Recent contributions support, and elucidate the basis for, the induction of HO-1 as a protectant against AKI. Translating such therapeutic potential into a therapeutic reality requires well tolerated and effective modalities for upregulating HO-1 and/or administering its products, which, optimally, should be salutary even when AKI is already established.

Application of carbon monoxide for treatment of acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury in critically ill patients is common and associated with a substantial increase in morbidity and mortality. Even with aggressive medical care and renal replacement therapy, acute kidney injury remains a significant health care concern. Recent published reports offer new strategies for the prevention and amelioration of acute kidney injury using carbon monoxide. Although considered a toxic environmental gas, carbon monoxide has recently aroused scientific and clinical interest, as its beneficial effects and mechanisms of action have been substantially defined in various in vitro and in vivo experiments. The exogenous application of carbon monoxide can confer cytoprotection by modulating intracellular signaling pathways through its anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, vasodilative, antithrombotic and antiproliferative properties. Thus, evidence is accumulating to support the notion of carbon monoxide treatment for acute kidney disease. In this review, we focus on the extensively analyzed advantageous value of treatment with inhaled/soluble carbon monoxide in the context of kidney injury. Mechanisms such as signaling pathways, as well as an expanded view regarding toxicity and side-effects, are described broadly. In addition, we discuss the clinical applicability of carbon monoxide as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of patients with acute kidney disease based on translating basic experimental findings into clinical application.

Signaling function of heme oxygenase proteins

SIGNIFICANCE

Many reports have underscored the importance of the heme degradation pathway that is regulated by heme oxygenase (HO). This reaction releases bile pigments and carbon monoxide (CO), which are important antioxidant and signaling molecules. Thus, the reaction of HO-1 would have significant cytoprotective effects. Nevertheless, the importance of this protein goes beyond its enzymatic action. New evidence outlines significant effects of inactive forms of the HO-1 protein.

RECENT ADVANCES

In fact, the role of the HO protein in cellular signaling, including transcription factor activation, binding to proteins, phosphorylation, and modulation of protein function, among others, has started being elucidated. The mechanism by which the inducible form of HO-1, in particular, can migrate to various cellular compartments to mediate important signaling or how and why it binds to key transcription factors and other proteins that are important in DNA repair is also described in several physiologic systems.

CRITICAL ISSUES

The signaling functions of HO-1 may have particular relevance in clinical circumstances, including cancer, as redistribution of HO-1 into the nuclear compartment is observed with cancer progression and metastasis. In addition, along with oxidative stress, the pleiotropic functions of HO-1 modulate antioxidant defense. In organ transplantation, HO and its byproducts suppress rejection at multiple levels and in sepsis-induced pulmonary dysfunction, inhaled CO or modulation of HO activity can change the course of the disease in animals.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

It is hoped that a more detailed understanding of the various signaling functions of HO will guide therapeutic approaches for complex diseases.

Serum bilirubin affects graft outcomes through UDP-glucuronosyltransferase sequence variation in kidney transplantation

Background

Oxidative stress is a major mediator of adverse outcome after kidney transplantation. Bilirubin is produced by heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), catalyzed by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT1A1), and has potential as an antioxidant. In this study, we investigated the effects of HO-1 and UGT1A1 sequence variations on kidney allograft outcomes.

Methods

Clinical data were collected from 429 Korean recipients who underwent kidney transplantation from 1990–2008. Genotyping for UGT1A1*28 and HO-1 (A−413T) was performed. Acute rejection and graft survival were monitored as end-points.

Results

Serum levels of total bilirubin were significantly increased after transplantation (0.41±0.19 mg/dL to 0.80±0.33 mg/dL, P<0.001). Post-transplant 1-year bilirubin level was higher in 6/7 or 7/7 carriers compared with 6/6 homozygotes in terms of the UGT1A1*28 polymorphism (6/6 vs. 6/7 vs. 7/7: 0.71±0.27 vs. 1.06±0.36 vs. 1.10±0.45 mg/dL, P<0.001). According to an additive model of genotype analysis, the 7-allele genotype had a protective effect on the development of acute rejection compared with the 6-allele (odds ratio 0.43, 95% CI 0.25–0.73, P for trend = 0.006). Multivariate Cox regression analysis revealed that individuals carrying the 7-allele had a decreased risk of graft loss, by a factor of 0.36 (95% CI 0.15–0.85, P = 0.019). The HO-1 (A−413T) polymorphism had no effect on serum bilirubin levels or graft outcomes.

Conclusions

The UGT1A1*28 polymorphism is associated with changes in serum bilirubin and with graft outcome after kidney transplantation.

Combined losartan and nitro-oleic acid remarkably improves diabetic nephropathy in mice

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The inhibitors of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) can alleviate some of the symptoms of DN but fail to stop the progression to ESRD. Our previous studies demonstrate renoprotective action of nitro-oleic acid (OA-NO2) in several rodent models of renal disease. Here we examined the therapeutic potential and the underlying mechanism of combination of losartan and OA-NO2 in db/db mice. OA-NO2 was infused at 5 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1) via osmotic minipump, and losartan was incorporated into diet at 10 mg·kg(-1)·day(-1), each administered alone or in combination for 2 wk. Diabetic db/db mice developed progressive albuminuria and glomerulosclerosis, accompanied by podocytes loss, increased indexes of renal fibrosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Treatment of the diabetic mice with OA-NO2 or losartan alone moderately ameliorated kidney injury; however, the combined treatment remarkably reduced albuminuria, restored glomerular filtration barrier structure, and attenuated glomerulosclerosis, accompanied with significant suppression of renal oxidative stress and inflammation. These data demonstrate that combination of losartan and OA-NO2 effectively reverses renal injury in DN.

The activation of HO-1/Nrf-2 contributes to the protective effects of diallyl disulfide (DADS) against ethanol-induced oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

Diallyl disulfide (DADS) is a garlic-derived organosulfur compound. The current study is designed to evaluate the protective effects of DADS against ethanol-induced oxidative stress, and to explore the underlying mechanisms by examining the HO-1/Nrf-2 pathway.

METHODS

We investigated whether or not DADS could activate the HO-1 in normal human liver cell LO2, and then evaluated the protective effects of DADS against ethanol-induced damage in LO2 cells and in acute ethanol-intoxicated mice. The biochemical parameters were measured using commercial kits. HO-1 mRNA level was determined by RT-PCR. Histopathology and immunofluorescence assay were performed with routine methods. Protein levels were measured by western blot.

RESULTS

DADS significantly increased the mRNA and protein levels of HO-1, stimulated the nuclear translocation of Nrf-2 and increased the phosphorylation of MAPK in LO2 cells. The nuclear translocation of Nrf-2 was abrogated by MAPK inhibitors. DADS significantly suppressed ethanol-induced elevation of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and aspartate transaminase (AST) activities, decrease of glutathione (GSH) level, increase of malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and apoptosis of LO2 cells, which were all blocked by ZnPPIX. In mice, DADS effectively suppressed acute ethanol-induced elevation of aminotransferase activities, and improved liver histopathological changes, which might be associated with HO-1 activation.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that DADS could induce the activation of HO-1/Nrf-2 pathway, which may contribute to the protective effects of DADS against ethanol-induced liver injury.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

DADS may be beneficial for the prevention and treatment of ALD due to significant activation of HO-1/Nrf-2 pathway.

PPARδ binding to heme oxygenase 1 promoter prevents angiotensin II-induced adipocyte dysfunction in Goldblatt hypertensive rats

Objective:

Renin–angiotensin system (RAS) regulates adipogenic response with adipocyte hypertrophy by increasing oxidative stress. Recent studies have shown the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-δ (PPARδ) agonist in attenuation of angiotensin II-induced oxidative stress. The aim of this study was to explore a potential mechanistic link between PPARδ and the cytoprotective enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and to elucidate the contribution of HO-1 to the adipocyte regulatory effects of PPARδ agonism in an animal model of enhanced RAS, the Goldblatt 2 kidney 1 clip (2K1C) model.

Method:

We first established a direct stimulatory effect of the PPARδ agonist (GW 501516) on the HO-1 gene by demonstrating increased luciferase activity in COS-7 cells transfected with a luciferase-HO-1 promoter construct. Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups: sham-operated animals, 2K1C rats and 2K1C rats treated with GW 501516, in the absence or presence of the HO activity inhibitor, stannous mesoporphyrin (SnMP).

Results:

2K1C animals had increased visceral adiposity, adipocyte hypertrophy, increased inflammatory cytokines, increased circulatory and adipose tisssue levels of renin and Ang II along with increased adipose tissue gp91 phox expression (P<0.05) when compared with sham-operated animals. Treatment with GW 501516 increased adipose tissue HO-1 and adiponectin levels (P<0.01) along with enhancement of Wnt10b and β-catenin expression. HO-1 induction was accompanied by the decreased expression of Wnt5b, mesoderm specific transcript (mest) and C/EBPα levels and an increased number of small adipocytes (P<0.05). These effects of GW501516 were reversed in 2K1C animals exposed to SnMP (P<0.05).

Conclusion:

Taken together, our study demonstrates, for the first time, that increased levels of Ang II contribute towards adipose tissue dysregulation, which is abated by PPARδ-mediated upregulation of the heme-HO system. These findings highlight the pivotal role and symbiotic relationship of HO-1, adiponectin and PPARδ in the regulation of metabolic homeostasis in adipose tissues.

The baboon kidney transcriptome: analysis of transcript sequence, splice variants, and abundance

The baboon is an invaluable model for the study of human health and disease, including many complex diseases of the kidney. Although scientists have made great progress in developing this animal as a model for numerous areas of biomedical research, genomic resources for the baboon, such as a quality annotated genome, are still lacking. To this end, we characterized the baboon kidney transcriptome using high-throughput cDNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) to identify genes, gene variants, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertion-deletion polymorphisms (InDels), cellular functions, and key pathways in the baboon kidney to provide a genomic resource for the baboon. Analysis of our sequencing data revealed 45,499 high-confidence SNPs and 29,813 InDels comparing baboon cDNA sequences with the human hg18 reference assembly and identified 35,900 cDNAs in the baboon kidney, including 35,150 transcripts representing 15,369 genic genes that are novel for the baboon. Gene ontology analysis of our sequencing dataset also identified numerous biological functions and canonical pathways that were significant in the baboon kidney, including a large number of metabolic pathways that support known functions of the kidney. The results presented in this study catalogues the transcribed mRNAs, noncoding RNAs, and hypothetical proteins in the baboon kidney and establishes a genomic resource for scientists using the baboon as an experimental model.

Protective response in renal transplantation: no clinical or molecular differences between open and laparoscopic donor nephrectomy

OBJECTIVE

Prolonged warm ischemia time and increased intra-abdominal pressure caused by pneumoperitoneum during a laparoscopic donor nephrectomy could enhance renal ischemia reperfusion injury. For this reason, laparoscopic donor nephrectomy may be associated with a slower graft function recovery. However, an adequate protective response may balance the ischemia reperfusion damage. This study investigated whether laparoscopic donor nephrectomy modified the protective response of renal tissue during kidney transplantation.

METHODS

Patients undergoing live renal transplantation were prospectively analyzed and divided into two groups based on the donor nephrectomy approach used: 1) the control group, recipients of open donor nephrectomy (n = 29), and 2) the study group, recipients of laparoscopic donor nephrectomy (n = 26). Graft biopsies were obtained at two time points: T-1 = after warm ischemia time and T+1 = 45 minutes after kidney reperfusion. The samples were analyzed by immunohistochemistry for the Bcl-2 and HO-1 proteins and by real-time polymerase chain reaction for the mRNA expression of Bcl-2, HO-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor.

RESULTS

The area under the curve for creatinine and delayed graft function were similar in both the laparoscopic and open groups. There was no difference in the protective gene expression between the laparoscopic donor nephrectomy and open donor nephrectomy groups. The protein expression of HO-1 and Bcl-2 were similar between the open and laparoscopic groups. Furthermore, the gene expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 correlated with the warm ischemia time in the open group (p = 0.047) and that of vascular endothelial growth factor with the area under the curve for creatinine in the laparoscopic group (p = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

The postoperative renal function and protective factor expression were similar between laparoscopic donor nephrectomy and open donor nephrectomy. These findings ensure laparoscopic donor nephrectomy utilization in renal transplantation.

Age sensitizes the kidney to heme protein-induced acute kidney injury

Age increases the risk for ischemic acute kidney injury (AKI). We questioned whether a similar age-dependent injury occurs following exposure to hemoglobin, a known nephrotoxin. Old mice (~16 mo old), but not young mice (~6 mo old), when administered hemoglobin, exhibited marked elevation in blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine, and acute tubular necrosis with prominent tubular cast formation. The aged kidney exhibited induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and other genes/proteins that may protect against heme-mediated renal injury, including ferritin, ferroportin, haptoglobin, and hemopexin. Old mice did not evince induction of HO-2 mRNA by hemoglobin, whereas a modest induction of HO-2 mRNA was observed in young mice. To determine the functional significance of HO-2 in heme protein-induced AKI, we administered hemoglobin to relatively young HO-2(+/+) and HO-2(-/-) mice: HO-2(-/-) mice, compared with HO-2(+/+) mice, exhibited greater renal dysfunction and histologic injury when administered hemoglobin. In addition to failing to elicit a protective system such as HO-2 in response to hemoglobin, old mice exhibited an exaggerated maladaptive response typified by markedly greater induction of the nephrotoxic cytokine IL-6 (130-fold increase vs. 10-fold increase in mRNA in young mice). We conclude that aged mice, unlike relatively younger mice, are exquisitely sensitive to the nephrotoxicity of hemoglobin, an effect attended by a failure to induce HO-2 mRNA and a fulminant upregulation of IL-6. Age thus markedly augments the sensitivity of the kidney to heme proteins, and HO-2 confers resistance to such insults.

Adaptive responses to tissue injury: role of heme oxygenase-1

Tissue injury may result as a consequence of a physical, chemical, or biological insult. Such injury recruits an adaptive response to restore homeostasis and protect against further injury. One of the most prompt protective and adaptive responses by all tissues is the robust activation of the highly inducible, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic protein, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). HO-1, a microsomal enzyme, catalyzes the breakdown of pro-oxidant heme, which is released from heme proteins to equimolar quantities of iron, carbon monoxide, and biliverdin. Biliverdin is converted to bilirubin by biliverdin reductase. The beneficial effects of HO-1 expression are not merely due to heme degradation but are also attributed to the cytoprotective properties of the byproducts of the reaction. Manipulation of this enzymatic system in a myriad of disease models has provided substantial evidence to support its role as a cytoprotective enzyme and is therefore an emerging therapeutic molecule.

Stem cell transplantation increases antioxidant effects in diabetic mice

Intra bone marrow-bone marrow transplantation (IBM- BMT) + thymus transplantation (TT) has been shown to reduce the incidence of graft versus host disease (GVHD) and restore donor-derived T cell function. In addition, an increase in insulin sensitivity occurred in db/db mice after IBM-BMT+TT treatment. Heme oxygenase (HO)-1 is a stress inducible enzyme which exert antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and immune-modulating properties. We examined whether IBM-BMT+TT could modulate the expression of HO-1 in the kidneys of db/db mice. Six-week-old db/db mice with blood glucose levels higher than 250 mg/dl were treated with IBM-BMT+TT. Six weeks later, the db/db mice showed decreased body weight, blood glucose levels and insulin, and increased plasma adiponectin levels. The upregulation of HO-1 was associated with significantly (p<0.05) increased levels of peNOS and pAKT, but decreased levels of iNOS in the kidneys of db/db mice. Plasma creatinine levels also decreased (p<0.05), and the expression of type IV collagen was improved. Thus IBM-BMT+TT unregulated the expression of HO-1, peNOS and pAKT, while decreasing iNOS levels in the kidney of db/db mice. This was associated with an improvement in renal function.