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Wang W, Wu D, Wang H, Zhang Z, Jiang X, Li S, Shi Y, Gao X. Acute Effects of Breath-Hold Conditions on Aerobic Fitness in Elite Rugby Players. Life (Basel) 2024; 14:917. [PMID: 39202660 PMCID: PMC11355650 DOI: 10.3390/life14080917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The effects of face immersion and concurrent exercise on the diving reflex evoked by breath-hold (BH) differ, yet little is known about the combined effects of different BH conditions on aerobic fitness in elite athletes. This study aimed to assess the acute effects of various BH conditions on 18 male elite rugby players (age: 23.5 ± 1.8 years; height: 183.3 ± 3.4 cm; body mass: 84.8 ± 8.5 kg) and identify the BH condition eliciting the greatest aerobic fitness activation. Participants underwent five warm-up conditions: baseline regular breathing, dynamic dry BH (DD), static dry BH (SD), wet dynamic BH (WD), and wet static BH (WS). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were found in red blood cells (RBCs), red blood cell volume (RGB), and hematocrit (HCT) pre- and post-warm-up. Peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and relative oxygen uptake (VO2/kgpeak) varied significantly across conditions, with BH groups showing notably higher values than the regular breathing group (p < 0.05). Interaction effects of facial immersion and movement conditions were significant for VO2peak, VO2/kgpeak, and the cardiopulmonary optimal point (p < 0.05). Specifically, VO2peak and peak stroke volume (SVpeak) were significantly higher in the DD group compared to that in other conditions. Increases in VO2peak were strongly correlated with changes in RBCs and HCT induced by DD warm-up (r∆RBC = 0.84, r∆HCT = 0.77, p < 0.01). In conclusion, DD BH warm-up appears to optimize subsequent aerobic performance in elite athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendi Wang
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China; (W.W.); (D.W.); (H.W.)
| | - Dongzhe Wu
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China; (W.W.); (D.W.); (H.W.)
- School of Sport Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China; (W.W.); (D.W.); (H.W.)
| | - Zhiqiang Zhang
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (Z.Z.); (X.J.); (S.L.); (Y.S.)
| | - Xuming Jiang
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (Z.Z.); (X.J.); (S.L.); (Y.S.)
| | - Shufeng Li
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (Z.Z.); (X.J.); (S.L.); (Y.S.)
| | - Yongjin Shi
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (Z.Z.); (X.J.); (S.L.); (Y.S.)
| | - Xiaolin Gao
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China; (W.W.); (D.W.); (H.W.)
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Veiga S, Pla R, Qiu X, Boudet D, Guimard A. Effects of Extended Underwater Sections on the Physiological and Biomechanical Parameters of Competitive Swimmers. Front Physiol 2022; 13:815766. [PMID: 35177993 PMCID: PMC8845443 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.815766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite changes in the underwater sections of swimming races affecting overall performance, there is no information about the effects of the apnea-induced changes on the physiological state of competitive swimmers. The aim of the present research was to examine the effect of changes in the underwater race sections on the physiological [blood lactate concentration, heart rate, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE)] and biomechanical (underwater time, distance, and velocity) parameters of competitive swimmers. Twelve youth competitive swimmers belonging to the national team (706 ± 28.9 FINA points) performed 2 × 75 m efforts under three different conditions, while maintaining a 200 m race pace: (1) free underwater sections, (2) kick number of condition 1 plus two kicks, and (3) maximum distance underwater. Overall performance was maintained, and underwater section durations increased from condition 1 to 3 as expected according to the experimental design. Heart rate and blood lactate concentration values did not show differences between conditions, but the RPE values were significantly greater (F2, 36 = 18.00, p = 0.001, η2: 0.50) for the constrained (conditions 2 and 3) vs. the free underwater condition. Underwater parameters were modified within the 75 m efforts (lap 1 to lap 3), but the magnitude of changes did not depend on the experimental condition (all lap × condition effects p > 0.05). Controlled increases of underwater sections in trained swimmers can led to optimizing performance in these race segments despite small increases of perceived discomfort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Veiga
- Departamento de Deportes, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte—INEF, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Robin Pla
- French Swimming Federation, Clichy, France
- Institut de Recherche BioMédicale et d’Epidémiologie du Sport, IRMES, Paris, France
| | - Xiao Qiu
- Departamento de Deportes, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte—INEF, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Institute of Sports and Sport Science, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany
| | | | - Alexandre Guimard
- Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Hypoxie et Poumon, H&P, INSERM, UMR 1272, Bobigny, France
- Département STAPS, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Bobigny, France
- *Correspondence: Alexandre Guimard,
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Paganini M, Moon RE, Boccalon N, Melloni GEM, Giacon TA, Camporesi EM, Bosco G. Blood Gas Analyses in Hyperbaric and Underwater Environments: A Systematic Review. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2021; 132:283-293. [PMID: 34941439 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00569.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pulmonary gas exchange during diving or in a dry hyperbaric environment is affected by increased breathing gas density and possibly water immersion. During free diving there is also the effect of apnea. Few studies have published blood gas data in underwater or hyperbaric environments: this review summarizes the available literature and was used to test the hypothesis that arterial PO2 under hyperbaric conditions can be predicted from blood gas measurement at 1 atmosphere assuming a constant arterial/alveolar PO2 ratio (a:A). METHODS A systematic search was performed on traditional sources including arterial blood gases obtained on humans in hyperbaric or underwater environments. The a:A was calculated at 1 atmosphere absolute (ATA). For each condition, predicted PaO2 at pressure was calculated using the 1 ATA a:A, and the measured PaO2 was plotted against the predicted value with Spearman correlation coefficients. RESULTS Of 3640 records reviewed, 30 studies were included: 25 were reports describing values obtained in hyperbaric chambers, and the remaining were collected while underwater. Increased inspired O2 at pressure resulted in increased PaO2, although underlying lung disease in patients treated with hyperbaric oxygen attenuated the rise. PaCO2 generally increased only slightly. In breath-hold divers, hyperoxemia generally occurred at maximum depth, with hypoxemia after surfacing. The a:A adequately predicted the PaO2 under various conditions: dry (r=0.993, p< 0.0001); rest vs. exercise (r=0.999, p< 0.0001); and breathing mixtures (r=0.995, p< 0.0001). CONCLUSION Pulmonary oxygenation under hyperbaric conditions can be reliably and accurately predicted from 1 ATA a:A measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Paganini
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Richard E Moon
- Center for Hyperbaric Medicine and Environmental Physiology, Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Nicole Boccalon
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Giorgio E M Melloni
- TIMI Study Group, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Tommaso Antonio Giacon
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Enrico M Camporesi
- TEAMHealth Anesthesia, Tampa General Hospital, Tampa, Florida, United States
| | - Gerardo Bosco
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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4
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McKnight JC, Mulder E, Ruesch A, Kainerstorfer JM, Wu J, Hakimi N, Balfour S, Bronkhorst M, Horschig JM, Pernett F, Sato K, Hastie GD, Tyack P, Schagatay E. When the human brain goes diving: using near-infrared spectroscopy to measure cerebral and systemic cardiovascular responses to deep, breath-hold diving in elite freedivers. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200349. [PMID: 34176327 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Continuous measurements of haemodynamic and oxygenation changes in free living animals remain elusive. However, developments in biomedical technologies may help to fill this knowledge gap. One such technology is continuous-wave near-infrared spectroscopy (CW-NIRS)-a wearable and non-invasive optical technology. Here, we develop a marinized CW-NIRS system and deploy it on elite competition freedivers to test its capacity to function during deep freediving to 107 m depth. We use the oxyhaemoglobin and deoxyhaemoglobin concentration changes measured with CW-NIRS to monitor cerebral haemodynamic changes and oxygenation, arterial saturation and heart rate. Furthermore, using concentration changes in oxyhaemoglobin engendered by cardiac pulsation, we demonstrate the ability to conduct additional feature exploration of cardiac-dependent haemodynamic changes. Freedivers showed cerebral haemodynamic changes characteristic of apnoeic diving, while some divers also showed considerable elevations in venous blood volumes close to the end of diving. Some freedivers also showed pronounced arterial deoxygenation, the most extreme of which resulted in an arterial saturation of 25%. Freedivers also displayed heart rate changes that were comparable to diving mammals both in magnitude and patterns of change. Finally, changes in cardiac waveform associated with heart rates less than 40 bpm were associated with changes indicative of a reduction in vascular compliance. The success here of CW-NIRS to non-invasively measure a suite of physiological phenomenon in a deep-diving mammal highlights its efficacy as a future physiological monitoring tool for human freedivers as well as free living animals. This article is part of the theme issue 'Measuring physiology in free-living animals (Part II)'.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Chris McKnight
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK.,Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Eric Mulder
- Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Alexander Ruesch
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Jana M Kainerstorfer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.,Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Jingyi Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Naser Hakimi
- Artinis Medical Systems BV, Einsteinweg 17, 6662 PW Elst, The Netherlands
| | - Steve Balfour
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Instrumentation Group, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Mathijs Bronkhorst
- Artinis Medical Systems BV, Einsteinweg 17, 6662 PW Elst, The Netherlands
| | - Jörn M Horschig
- Artinis Medical Systems BV, Einsteinweg 17, 6662 PW Elst, The Netherlands
| | - Frank Pernett
- Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Katsufumi Sato
- Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8564, Japan
| | - Gordon D Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Peter Tyack
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Erika Schagatay
- Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,Swedish Winter Sport Research Center (SWSRC), Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
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5
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Physiology, pathophysiology and (mal)adaptations to chronic apnoeic training: a state-of-the-art review. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:1543-1566. [PMID: 33791844 PMCID: PMC8144079 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04664-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Breath-hold diving is an activity that humans have engaged in since antiquity to forage for resources, provide sustenance and to support military campaigns. In modern times, breath-hold diving continues to gain popularity and recognition as both a competitive and recreational sport. The continued progression of world records is somewhat remarkable, particularly given the extreme hypoxaemic and hypercapnic conditions, and hydrostatic pressures these athletes endure. However, there is abundant literature to suggest a large inter-individual variation in the apnoeic capabilities that is thus far not fully understood. In this review, we explore developments in apnoea physiology and delineate the traits and mechanisms that potentially underpin this variation. In addition, we sought to highlight the physiological (mal)adaptations associated with consistent breath-hold training. Breath-hold divers (BHDs) are evidenced to exhibit a more pronounced diving-response than non-divers, while elite BHDs (EBHDs) also display beneficial adaptations in both blood and skeletal muscle. Importantly, these physiological characteristics are documented to be primarily influenced by training-induced stimuli. BHDs are exposed to unique physiological and environmental stressors, and as such possess an ability to withstand acute cerebrovascular and neuronal strains. Whether these characteristics are also a result of training-induced adaptations or genetic predisposition is less certain. Although the long-term effects of regular breath-hold diving activity are yet to be holistically established, preliminary evidence has posed considerations for cognitive, neurological, renal and bone health in BHDs. These areas should be explored further in longitudinal studies to more confidently ascertain the long-term health implications of extreme breath-holding activity.
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Patrician A, Spajić B, Gasho C, Caldwell HG, Dawkins T, Stembridge M, Lovering AT, Coombs GB, Howe CA, Barak O, Drviš I, Dujić Ž, Ainslie PN. Temporal changes in pulmonary gas exchange efficiency when breath-hold diving below residual volume. Exp Physiol 2021; 106:1120-1133. [PMID: 33559974 DOI: 10.1113/ep089176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
NEW FINDINGS What is the central question of this study? How does deep breath-hold diving impact cardiopulmonary function, both acutely and over the subsequent 2.5 hours post-dive? What is the main finding and its importance? Breath-hold diving, to depths below residual volume, is associated with acute impairments in pulmonary gas exchange, which typically resolve within 2.5 hours. These data provide new insight into the behaviour of the lungs and pulmonary vasculature following deep diving. ABSTRACT Breath-hold diving involves highly integrative and extreme physiological responses to both exercise and asphyxia during progressive elevations in hydrostatic pressure. Over two diving training camps (Study 1 and 2), 25 breath-hold divers (recreational to world-champion) performed 66 dives to 57 ± 20 m (range: 18-117 m). Using the deepest dive from each diver, temporal changes in cardiopulmonary function were assessed using non-invasive pulmonary gas exchange (indexed via the O2 deficit), ultrasound B-line scores, lung compliance and pulmonary haemodynamics at baseline and following the dive. Hydrostatically induced lung compression was quantified in Study 2, using spirometry and lung volume measurement, enabling each dive to be categorized by its residual volume (RV)-equivalent depth. From both studies, pulmonary gas exchange inefficiency - defined as an increase in O2 deficit - was related to the depth of the dive (r2 = 0.345; P < 0.001), with dives associated with lung squeeze symptoms exhibiting the greatest deficits. In Study 1, although B-lines doubled from baseline (P = 0.027), cardiac output and pulmonary artery systolic pressure were unchanged post-dive. In Study 2, dives with lung compression to ≤RV had higher O2 deficits at 9 min, compared to dives that did not exceed RV (24 ± 25 vs. 5 ± 8 mmHg; P = 0.021). The physiological significance of a small increase in estimated lung compliance post-dive (via decreased and increased/unaltered airway resistance and reactance, respectively) remains equivocal. Following deep dives, the current study highlights an integrated link between hydrostatically induced lung compression and transient impairments in pulmonary gas exchange efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Patrician
- Center for Heart, Lung & Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Boris Spajić
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Christopher Gasho
- Center for Heart, Lung & Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Hannah G Caldwell
- Center for Heart, Lung & Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Tony Dawkins
- Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Michael Stembridge
- Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Andrew T Lovering
- Department of Human Physiology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Geoff B Coombs
- Center for Heart, Lung & Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Connor A Howe
- Center for Heart, Lung & Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Otto Barak
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Ivan Drviš
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Željko Dujić
- University of Split School of Medicine, Split, Croatia
| | - Philip N Ainslie
- Center for Heart, Lung & Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
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7
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Bosco G, Paganini M, Rizzato A, Martani L, Garetto G, Lion J, Camporesi EM, Moon RE. Arterial blood gases in divers at surface after prolonged breath-hold. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 120:505-512. [PMID: 31912227 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04296-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Adaptations during voluntary breath-hold diving have been increasingly investigated since these athletes are exposed to critical hypoxia during the ascent. However, only a limited amount of literature explored the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. This is the first study to measure arterial blood gases immediately before the end of a breath-hold in real conditions. METHODS Six well-trained breath-hold divers were enrolled for the experiment held at the "Y-40 THE DEEP JOY" pool (Montegrotto Terme, Padova, Italy). Before the experiment, an arterial cannula was inserted in the radial artery of the non-dominant limb. All divers performed: a breath-hold while moving at the surface using a sea-bob; a sled-assisted breath-hold dive to 42 m; and a breath-hold dive to 42 m with fins. Arterial blood samples were obtained in four conditions: one at rest before submersion and one at the end of each breath-hold. RESULTS No diving-related complications were observed. The arterial partial pressure of oxygen (96.2 ± 7.0 mmHg at rest, mean ± SD) decreased, particularly after the sled-assisted dive (39.8 ± 8.7 mmHg), and especially after the dive with fins (31.6 ± 17.0 mmHg). The arterial partial pressure of CO2 varied somewhat but after each study was close to normal (38.2 ± 3.0 mmHg at rest; 31.4 ± 3.7 mmHg after the sled-assisted dive; 36.1 ± 5.3 after the dive with fins). CONCLUSION We confirmed that the arterial partial pressure of oxygen reaches hazardously low values at the end of breath-hold, especially after the dive performed with voluntary effort. Critical hypoxia can occur in breath-hold divers even without symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Bosco
- Master in Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 3, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Matteo Paganini
- Master in Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 3, 35131, Padova, Italy.
| | - Alex Rizzato
- Master in Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 3, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Luca Martani
- Master in Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 3, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Jacopo Lion
- Master in Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo, 3, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Richard E Moon
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Hyperbaric Medicine and Environmental Physiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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8
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Bosco G, Rizzato A, Martani L, Schiavo S, Talamonti E, Garetto G, Paganini M, Camporesi EM, Moon RE. Arterial Blood Gas Analysis in Breath-Hold Divers at Depth. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1558. [PMID: 30455649 PMCID: PMC6230561 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to evaluate the partial pressure of arterial blood gases in breath-hold divers performing a submersion at 40 m. Eight breath-hold divers were enrolled for the trials held at "Y-40 THE DEEP JOY" pool (Montegrotto Terme, Padova, Italy). Prior to submersion, an arterial cannula in the radial artery of the non-dominant limb was positioned. All divers performed a sled-assisted breath-hold dive to 40 m. Three blood samplings occurred: at 10 min prior to submersion, at 40 m depth, and within 2 min after diver's surfacing and after resuming normal ventilation. Blood samples were analyzed immediately on site. Six subjects completed the experiment, without diving-related problems. The theoretically predicted hyperoxia at the bottom was observed in 4 divers out of 6, while the other 2 experienced a reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen (paO2) at the bottom. There were no significant increases in arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (paCO2) at the end of descent in 4 of 6 divers, while in 2 divers paCO2 decreased. Arterial mean pH and mean bicarbonate (HCO 3 - ) levels exhibited minor changes. There was a statistically significant increase in mean arterial lactate level after the exercise. Ours was the first attempt to verify real changes in blood gases at a depth of 40 m during a breath-hold descent in free-divers. We demonstrated that, at depth, relative hypoxemia can occur, presumably caused by lung compression. Also, hypercapnia exists at depth, to a lesser degree than would be expected from calculations, presumably because of pre-dive hyperventilation and carbon dioxide distribution in blood and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Bosco
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Alex Rizzato
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Luca Martani
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Simone Schiavo
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Ennio Talamonti
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Matteo Paganini
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Enrico M. Camporesi
- Environmental Physiology and Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Richard E. Moon
- Center for Hyperbaric Medicine and Environmental Physiology, Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States
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9
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Castellini M. Life under water: physiological adaptations to diving and living at sea. Compr Physiol 2013; 2:1889-919. [PMID: 23723028 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c110013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This review covers the field of diving physiology by following a chronological approach and focusing heavily on marine mammals. Because the study of modern diving physiology can be traced almost entirely to the work of Laurence Irving in the 1930s, this particular field of physiology is different than most in that it did not derive from multiple laboratories working at many locations or on different aspects of a similar problem. Because most of the physiology principles still used today were first formulated by Irving, it is important to the study of this field that the sequence of thought is examined as a progression of theory. The review covers the field in roughly decadal blocks and traces ideas as they were first suggested, tested, modified and in some cases, abandoned. Because diving physiology has also been extremely dependent on new technologies used in the development of diving recorders, a chronological approach fits well with advances in electronics and mechanical innovation. There are many species that dive underwater as part of their natural behavior, but it is mainly the marine mammals (seals, sea lions, and whales) that demonstrate both long duration and dives to great depth. There have been many studies on other diving species including birds, snakes, small aquatic mammals, and humans. This work examines these other diving species as appropriate and a listing of reviews and relevant literature on these groups is included at the end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Castellini
- School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska.
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10
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Abstract
Freediving is a sport in which athletes aim to achieve the longest or the deepest breath-hold dive. Divers are at risk of gradually increasing hypoxia and hypercapnia due to a long time spent underwater and additionally of increasing hyperoxia while depth diving. Exceeding the limits of hypoxia endurance leads to loss of consciousness or even to death whithout immediate first aid. Often enhanced world records indicate the ability to shape specific to the discipline adaptive mechanisms of cardio-pulmonary system which are individually conditioned. During stay underwater heartbeats decelerating called bradycardia, increase in blood pressure, peripheral blood vessels narrowing and blood centralization in freediver’s organism. These mechanisms enhance blood oxygen management as well as transporting it first of all to essential for survival organs, i.e. brain and heart. These mechanisms are supported by spleen and adrenal glands hormonal reactions.
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11
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Lee E, Yang JW, Kwon JD. The Effect of Breath-Hold Diving on Intraocular Pressure, Optic Nerve, Visual Field in Korean Haenyeo (Female Divers). JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN OPHTHALMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 2012. [DOI: 10.3341/jkos.2012.53.10.1480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eung Lee
- Department of Ophthalmology, Inje University Busan Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, Korea
| | - Jae Wook Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Inje University Busan Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, Korea
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12
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Ponganis PJ, Meir JU, Williams CL. In pursuit of Irving and Scholander: a review of oxygen store management in seals and penguins. J Exp Biol 2011; 214:3325-39. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.031252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Summary
Since the introduction of the aerobic dive limit (ADL) 30 years ago, the concept that most dives of marine mammals and sea birds are aerobic in nature has dominated the interpretation of their diving behavior and foraging ecology. Although there have been many measurements of body oxygen stores, there have been few investigations of the actual depletion of those stores during dives. Yet, it is the pattern, rate and magnitude of depletion of O2 stores that underlie the ADL. Therefore, in order to assess strategies of O2 store management, we review (a) the magnitude of O2 stores, (b) past studies of O2 store depletion and (c) our recent investigations of O2 store utilization during sleep apnea and dives of elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) and during dives of emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri). We conclude with the implications of these findings for (a) the physiological responses underlying O2 store utilization, (b) the physiological basis of the ADL and (c) the value of extreme hypoxemic tolerance and the significance of the avoidance of re-perfusion injury in these animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J. Ponganis
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA
| | - Jessica U. Meir
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Cassondra L. Williams
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
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Joulia F, Lemaitre F, Fontanari P, Mille ML, Barthelemy P. Circulatory effects of apnoea in elite breath-hold divers. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2009; 197:75-82. [PMID: 19254286 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.2009.01982.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
AIM Voluntary apnoea induces several physiological adaptations, including bradycardia, arterial hypertension and redistribution of regional blood flows. Elite breath-hold divers (BHDs) are able to maintain very long apnoea, inducing severe hypoxaemia without brain injury or black-out. It has thus been hypothesized that they develop protection mechanisms against hypoxia, as well as a decrease in overall oxygen uptake. METHODS To test this hypothesis, the apnoea response was studied in BHDs and non-divers (NDs) during static and dynamic apnoeas (SA, DA). Heart rate, arterial oxygen saturation (SaO(2)), and popliteal artery blood flow were recorded to investigate the oxygen-conserving effect of apnoea response, and the internal carotid artery blood flow was used to examine the mechanisms of cerebral protection. RESULTS The bradycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction were accentuated in BHDs compared with NDs (P < 0.01), in association with a smaller SaO(2) decrease (-2.7% vs. -4.9% during SA, P < 0.01 and -6% vs. -11.3% during DA, P < 0.01). Greater increase in carotid artery blood flow was also measured during apnoea in BHDs than in controls. CONCLUSION These results confirm that elite divers present a potentiation of the well-known apnoea response in both SA and DA conditions. This response is associated with higher brain perfusion which may partly explain the high levels of world apnoea records.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice Joulia
- UMR MD2 P2COE, IFR Jean Roche, Faculté de Médecine secteur Nord Marseille, Marseilles, France.
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Hypoxia augments apnea-induced increase in hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 105:63-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-008-0873-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Kohshi K, Katoh T, Abe H, Okudera T. Neurological Diving Accidents in Japanese Breath‐Hold Divers: A Preliminary Report. J Occup Health 2006. [DOI: 10.1539/joh.43.56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kiyotaka Kohshi
- Department of Neurosurgery
- Division of Hyperbaric MedicineUniversity Hospital of Occupational and Environmental Health
| | - Takahiko Katoh
- Department of Health Information ScienceSchool of Health Sciences, University of Occupational and Environmental Health
| | | | - Toshio Okudera
- Department of RadiologyAkita Research Institute of Brain and Blood Vessels
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Abstract
Apnea diving is a fascinating example of applied physiology. The record for apnea diving as an extreme sport is 171 meters, 8:58 minutes. The short time beneath the surface induces profound cardiovascular and respiratory effects. Variations of blood-gas tensions result from the interaction of metabolism and the rapid sequence of compression and decompression. Decompression sickness is possible. Apnea divers can reach depths beyond the theoretic physiologic limit by using the lung-packing maneuver. Apnea divers exhibit a fall in heart rate, which can be trained and is an oxygen-conserving effect, but increases the incidence of ventricular arrhythmia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claus-Martin Muth
- Sektion Anaesthesiologische Pathophysiologie und Verfahrensentwicklung, Universitaetsklinikum, Parkstrasse 11, D-89073 Ulm (Donau), Germany.
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Ferretti G, Costa M. Diversity in and adaptation to breath-hold diving in humans. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2003; 136:205-13. [PMID: 14527641 DOI: 10.1016/s1095-6433(03)00134-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Several features of potential adaptation to breath-hold diving in diving populations and extreme divers are reviewed. Thermal adaptation consists of an improvement in cold tolerance, as witnessed by a decrease in critical water temperature, and implies an elevation of the shivering threshold associated with a greater body insulation. This is indicative of either a strong peripheral vasoconstriction or a more effective countercurrent heat exchange. Respiratory adaptation consists of a blunted ventilatory response to carbon dioxide and an enlargement of lung volumes. Finally, the occurrence of a diving response has been demonstrated. An extreme peripheral vasoconstriction is associated with a dramatic increase in arterial blood pressure. The consequent stimulation of arterial baroreceptors causes an extreme drop of heart rate. Bradycardia is not compensated by a higher stroke volume, with consequent decrease in cardiac output. This decrease, however, is not such as to undermine perfusion to vital organs. Redistribution of blood flow occurs, and some organs such as skeletal muscle may become unperfused, as indicated by the high blood lactate concentrations at low metabolic rate. It is not possible to state, however, whether these changes reflect genetic adaptations or an adaptive response to a prolonged environmental stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Ferretti
- Department of Physiology, University Medical Centre, 1 rue Michel Servet, CH-1211 4, Geneva, Switzerland.
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Joulia F, Steinberg JG, Wolff F, Gavarry O, Jammes Y. Reduced oxidative stress and blood lactic acidosis in trained breath-hold human divers. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2002; 133:121-30. [PMID: 12385737 DOI: 10.1016/s1569-9048(02)00133-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We hypothesized that the repetition of brief epochs of hypoxemia in elite human breath-hold divers could induce an adaptation of their metabolic responses, resulting in reduced blood acidosis and oxidative stress. Trained divers who had a 7-10 year experience in breath-hold diving, and were able to sustain apnea up to 440 sec at rest, were compared to control individuals who sustained apnea for 145 sec at the most. The subjects sustained apnea at rest (static apnea), and then, performed two 1-min dynamic forearm exercises whether they breathed (control exercise) or sustained apnea (dynamic apnea). We measured arterial blood gases, venous blood pH, and venous blood concentrations of lactic acid, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and two endogenous anti-oxidants (reduced glutathione, GSH, and reduced ascorbic acid, RAA). In control subjects, the three experimental conditions elicited an increase in blood lactic acid concentration and an oxidative stress (increased TBARS, decreased GSH and RAA concentrations). In divers, the changes in lactic acid, TBARS, RAA, and GSH concentrations were markedly reduced after static and dynamic apnea, as well as after control exercise. Thus, human subjects involved in a long duration training programme of breath-hold diving have reduced post-apnea as well as post-exercise blood acidosis and oxidative stress, mimicking the responses of diving animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice Joulia
- Laboratoire d'Ergonomie du Sport et de la Performance Motrice, UFR STAPS, Université Toulon La Garde, Toulon, France
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Espersen K, Frandsen H, Lorentzen T, Kanstrup IL, Christensen NJ. The human spleen as an erythrocyte reservoir in diving-related interventions. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2002; 92:2071-9. [PMID: 11960959 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00055.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Twelve subjects without and ten subjects with diving experience performed short diving-related interventions. After labeling of erythrocytes, scintigraphic measurements were continuously performed during these interventions. All interventions elicited a graduated and reproducible splenic contraction, depending on the type, severity, and duration of the interventions. The splenic contraction varied between approximately 10% for "apnea" (breath holding for 30 s) and "cold clothes" (cold and wet clothes applied on the face with no breath holding for 30 s) and approximately 30-40% for "simulated diving" (simulated breath-hold diving for 30 s), "maximal apnea" (breath holding for maximal duration), and "maximal simulated diving" (simulated breath-hold diving for maximal duration). The strongest interventions (simulated diving, maximal apnea, and maximal simulated diving) elicited modest but significant increases in hemoglobin concentration (0.1-0.3 mmol/l) and hematocrit (0.3-1%). By an indirect method, the splenic venous hematocrit was calculated to 79%. No major differences were observed between the two groups. The splenic contraction should, therefore, be included in the diving response on equal terms with bradycardia, decreased peripheral blood flow, and increased blood pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Espersen
- Department of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Enstipp MR, Andrews RD, Jones DR. The effects of depth on the cardiac and behavioural responses of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) during voluntary diving. J Exp Biol 2001; 204:4081-92. [PMID: 11809782 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.204.23.4081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Heart rate and dive behaviour were monitored in double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) during shallow (1 m) and deep diving (12 m), after breathing different gas mixtures, to investigate the role of depth and the accompanying changes in blood gas levels in cardiac and behavioural control during voluntary diving. Pre-dive heart rate in both shallow- and deep-diving birds was approximately three times the resting heart rate (137.9±17.5 beats min–1; mean ± s.d., N=5), falling abruptly upon submersion to around 200–250 beats min–1. During shallow diving, the initial reduction in heart rate was followed by a secondary, more gradual decline, to around the resting level. In contrast, during deep diving, heart rate stabilised at 200–250 beats min–1. In dives of similar duration, mean dive heart rate was significantly lower during shallow diving (163.2±14.0 beats min–1) than during deep diving (216.4±7.7 beats min–1), but in both cases was significantly above the resting value. The difference in cardiac response is probably due to an increase in arterial oxygen tension (PaO2) during the descent phase of deep dives (compression hyperoxia). Exposure to a hyperoxic gas mixture before shallow diving significantly increased mean dive heart rate, while exposure to a hypoxic gas mixture in both the shallow and deep dive tanks significantly reduced mean dive heart rate. In contrast, breathing hypercapnic gas before diving had no significant effect on dive heart rate. We suggest that the cardiac response to voluntary diving in double-crested cormorants is strongly influenced by changes in blood oxygen levels throughout the dive. Dive duration was unaffected by alterations in inspired gas composition, but surface interval duration decreased during hyperoxic gas exposure and increased during hypoxic gas exposure. The most efficient dive pattern (highest dive/pause ratio) was observed after hyperoxic exposure. Our study suggests that blood oxygen level is a powerful stimulus that facilitates the cardiac and behavioural adjustments during foraging that are important components of a strategy allowing double-crested cormorants to maximise the time spent under water and, hence, potential foraging time.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Enstipp
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4.
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Grassi B, Ferretti G, Costa M, Ferrigno M, Panzacchi A, Lundgren CE, Marconi C, Cerretelli P. Ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia in elite breath-hold divers. RESPIRATION PHYSIOLOGY 1994; 97:323-32. [PMID: 7973136 DOI: 10.1016/0034-5687(94)90068-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
It was recently hypothesized that elite breath-hold divers may display blunted ventilatory responses to hypoxia and/or hypercapnia (Ferretti et al., J. Appl. Physiol. 70: 794-802, 1991). To test this hypothesis, the following measurements were made on three elite breath-hold divers (members of the same family), and on 9 healthy untrained control subjects (C): (1) Steady-state pulmonary ventilation (VE) at rest in the supine posture while breathing room air or normoxic CO2-enriched mixtures. (2) Breath-by-breath VE changes (delta VE), with respect to baseline conditions, after 4 breaths of 100% O2, under the following conditions: normoxia (PIO2 = 146 Torr) at rest (NR); normoxic exercise (60 watt on a bicycle ergometer) (NE); hypoxia (PIO2 = 77 Torr) at rest (HR); hypoxic exercise (HE). The results were as follows: (1) In hypercapnic experiments VE (normalized per unit of body surface area) was significantly lower in the divers than in C (4.32 +/- 0.04 [mean +/- SD]L.min-1.m-2 vs. 5.31 +/- 0.62 at FICO2 = 1.5%; 5.21 +/- 0.17 vs. 7.72 +/- 1.39 at FICO2 = 3%; 8.86 +/- 0.76 vs. 13.14 +/- 2.27 at FICO2 = 5%), as well as than in subjects described by previous authors as being characterized by 'low CO2 sensitivity'. (2) The 100% O2-breathing maneuvers did not induce significant delta VE both in NR and in HR, whereas peak delta VE were -6.73 +/- 1.38 L.min-1 (divers) vs. -5.24 +/- 3.10 (C) in NE, and -17.39 +/- 4.92 (divers) vs. -17.52 +/- 6.32 (C) in HE (no significant differences). It is concluded that the divers, compared to C, had a blunted ventilatory response to hypercapnia, but not to hypoxia. The former may represent an adaptive or genetically inherited phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Grassi
- Section of Physiology, C.N.R., Milan, Italy
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