1
|
Geromont C, Lambert M, Bosch A. Swimrun race, athletes, safety and performance: A brief review. SPORTS MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2021; 3:207-211. [PMID: 35783370 PMCID: PMC9219301 DOI: 10.1016/j.smhs.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Swimrun was established in Sweden in 2006. In competition athletes alternate between running and swimming multiple times. It has grown from only being hosted in Sweden to now being a global sport. The swimrun race exposes athletes to environments that require a unique set of skills. For example, participants have to negotiate ocean currents and waves. The environmental conditions change between the runs and the swims. Athletes may be exposed to hot temperatures when running in wetsuits (25 °C and hotter) and cold water (colder than 16 °C) when swimming. This sudden change in environmental conditions imposes a poorly defined physiological stress on the participants. Research on the demands of swimrun is scarce. More research is needed to improve athlete safety during events. Also, research is needed to provide insight into enhancing training methods and performance.
Collapse
|
2
|
Keramidas ME, Botonis PG. Short-term sleep deprivation and human thermoregulatory function during thermal challenges. Exp Physiol 2021; 106:1139-1148. [PMID: 33745159 DOI: 10.1113/ep089467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
NEW FINDINGS What is the topic of this review? It is generally accepted that sleep deprivation constitutes a predisposing factor to the development of thermal injury. This review summarizes the available human-based evidence on the impact of sleep loss on autonomic and behavioural thermoeffectors during acute exposure to low and high ambient temperatures. What advances does it highlight? Limited to moderate evidence suggests that sleep deprivation per se impairs thermoregulatory defence mechanisms during exposure to thermal extremes. Future research is required to establish whether inadequate sleep enhances the risk for cold- and heat-related illnesses. ABSTRACT Relatively short periods of inadequate sleep provoke physiological and psychological perturbations, typically leading to functional impairments and degradation in performance. It is commonly accepted that sleep deprivation also disturbs thermal homeostasis, plausibly enhancing susceptibility to cold- and heat-related illnesses. Herein, we summarize the current state of human-based evidence on the impact of short-term (i.e., ≤4 nights) sleep deprivation on autonomic and behavioural thermoeffectors during acute exposure to low and high ambient temperatures. The purpose of this brief narrative review is to highlight knowledge gaps in the area and stimulate future research to investigate whether sleep deprivation constitutes a predisposing factor for the development of thermal injuries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michail E Keramidas
- Division of Environmental Physiology, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Center, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Solna, Sweden
| | - Petros G Botonis
- School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Knechtle B, Waśkiewicz Z, Sousa CV, Hill L, Nikolaidis PT. Cold Water Swimming-Benefits and Risks: A Narrative Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E8984. [PMID: 33276648 PMCID: PMC7730683 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17238984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cold water swimming (winter or ice swimming) has a long tradition in northern countries. Until a few years ago, ice swimming was practiced by very few extreme athletes. For some years now, ice swimming has been held as competitions in ice-cold water (colder than 5 °C). The aim of this overview is to present the current status of benefits and risks for swimming in cold water. When cold water swimming is practiced by experienced people with good health in a regular, graded and adjusted mode, it appears to bring health benefits. However, there is a risk of death in unfamiliar people, either due to the initial neurogenic cold shock response or due to a progressive decrease in swimming efficiency or hypothermia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland;
| | - Zbigniew Waśkiewicz
- Institute of Sport Science, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland;
- Department of Sports Medicine and Medical Rehabilitation Moscow, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 19c1 Moscow, Russia
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Bouve College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| | - Lee Hill
- Division of Gastroenterology & Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada;
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Heat acclimation does not modify autonomic responses to core cooling and the skin thermal comfort zone. J Therm Biol 2020; 91:102602. [PMID: 32716857 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2020.102602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Exercise heat acclimation (HA) is known to magnify the sweating response by virtue of a lower threshold as well as increased gain and maximal capacity of sweating. However, HA has been shown to potentiate the shivering response in a cold-air environment. We investigated whether HA would alter heat loss and heat production responses during water immersion. Twelve healthy male participants underwent a 10-day HA protocol comprising daily 90-min controlled-hyperthermia (target rectal temperature, Tre 38.5 °C) exercise sessions. Preceding and following HA, the participants performed a maximal exercise test in thermoneutral conditions (ambient temperature 23 °C, relative humidity 50%) and were, following exercise, immersed in 28 °C water for 60 min. Thermal comfort zone (TCZ) was also assessed with participants regulating the temperature of a water-perfused suit during heating and cooling. Baseline pre-immersion Tre was similar pre- and post-HA (pre: 38.33 ± 0.33 °C vs post: 38.12 ± 0.36 °C, p = 0.092). The Tre cooling rate was identical pre-to post-HA (-0.03 ± 0.01 °C·min-1, p = 0.31), as was the vasomotor response reflected in the forearm-fingertip temperature difference. Shivering thresholds (p = 0.43) and gains (p = 0.61) were not affected by HA. TCZ was established at similar temperatures, with the magnitude in regulated water temperature being 7.6 (16.3) °C pre-HA and 5.1 (24.7) °C post-HA (p = 0.65). The present findings suggest that heat production and heat loss responses during whole body cooling as well as the skin thermal comfort zone remained unaltered by a controlled-hyperthermia HA protocol.
Collapse
|
5
|
Reliability and validity of methods in the assessment of cold-induced shivering thermogenesis. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 120:591-601. [PMID: 31955279 PMCID: PMC7042274 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04288-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare two analytical methods for the estimation of the shivering onset inflection point, segmental regression and visual inspection of data, and to assess the test-retest reliability and validity of four metrics of shivering measurement; oxygen uptake (V̇O2), electromyography (EMG), mechanomyography (MMG) and bedside shivering assessment scale (BSAS). METHODS Ten volunteers attended three identical experimental sessions involving passive deep-body cooling via cold water immersion at 10 °C. V̇O2, EMG, and MMG were continuously assessed, while the time elapsed at each BSAS stage was recorded. Metrics were graphed as a function of time and rectal temperature (Tre). Inflection points for intermittent and constant shivering were visually identified for every graph and compared to segmental regression. RESULTS Excellent agreement was seen between segmental regression and visual inspection (ICC, 0.92). All measurement metrics presented good-to-excellent test-retest reliability (ICC's > 0.75 and 0.90 respectively), with the exception of visual identification of intermittent shivering for V̇O2 measurement (ICC, 0.73) and segmental regression for EMG measurement (ICC, 0.74). In the assessment of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), EMG showed the largest SNR at the point of shivering onset followed by MMG and finally V̇O2. CONCLUSIONS Segmental regression provides a successful analytical method for identifying shivering onset. Good-to-excellent reliability can be seen across V̇O2, EMG, MMG, and BSAS, yet given the observed lag times, SNRs, along with known advantages/disadvantaged of each metric, it is recommended that no single metric is used in isolation. An integrative, real-time measure of shivering is proposed.
Collapse
|
6
|
Carceller A, Javierre C, Ríos M, Viscor G. Amputation Risk Factors in Severely Frostbitten Patients. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16081351. [PMID: 30991721 PMCID: PMC6517929 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16081351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the incidence of frostbite has increased among healthy young adults who practice winter sports (skiing, mountaineering, ice climbing and technical climbing/alpinism) at both the professional and amateur levels. Moreover, given that the population most frequently affected is healthy and active, frostbite supposes a substantial interruption of their normal activity and in most cases is associated with long-term sequelae. It particularly has a higher impact when the affected person’s daily activities require exposure to cold environments, as either sports practices or work activities in which low temperatures are a constant (ski patrols, mountain guides, avalanche forecasters, workers in the cold chain, etc.). Clinical experience with humans shows a limited reversibility of injuries via potential tissue regeneration, which can be fostered with optimal medical management. Data were collected from 92 frostbitten patients in order to evaluate factors that represent a risk of amputation after severe frostbite. Mountain range, years of expertise in winter mountaineering, time elapsed before rewarming and especially altitude were the most important factors for a poor prognosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Carceller
- Secció de Fisiologia, Departament de Biologia Cel·lular, Fisiologia i Immunologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
- Medical Commission of the International Federation for Climbing and Mountaineering (UIAA MedCom), CH 3000 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Casimiro Javierre
- Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, 08907 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Martín Ríos
- Secció d'Estadística, Departament de Genètica, Estadística i Microbiologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Ginés Viscor
- Secció de Fisiologia, Departament de Biologia Cel·lular, Fisiologia i Immunologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Caldwell JN, van den Heuvel AMJ, Kerry P, Clark MJ, Peoples GE, Taylor NAS. A vascular mechanism to explain thermally mediated variations in deep-body cooling rates during the immersion of profoundly hyperthermic individuals. Exp Physiol 2018; 103:512-522. [DOI: 10.1113/ep086760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joanne N. Caldwell
- Centre for Human and Applied Physiology, School of Medicine; University of Wollongong; Wollongong NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Anne M. J. van den Heuvel
- Centre for Human and Applied Physiology, School of Medicine; University of Wollongong; Wollongong NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Pete Kerry
- Centre for Human and Applied Physiology, School of Medicine; University of Wollongong; Wollongong NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Mitchell J. Clark
- Centre for Human and Applied Physiology, School of Medicine; University of Wollongong; Wollongong NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Gregory E. Peoples
- Centre for Human and Applied Physiology, School of Medicine; University of Wollongong; Wollongong NSW 2522 Australia
| | - Nigel A. S. Taylor
- Centre for Human and Applied Physiology, School of Medicine; University of Wollongong; Wollongong NSW 2522 Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Castellani JW, Spitz MG, Karis AJ, Martini S, Young AJ, Margolis LM, Phillip Karl J, Murphy NE, Xu X, Montain SJ, Bohn JA, Teien HK, Stenberg PH, Gundersen Y, Pasiakos SM. Cardiovascular and thermal strain during 3-4 days of a metabolically demanding cold-weather military operation. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2017; 6:2. [PMID: 28878888 PMCID: PMC5586032 DOI: 10.1186/s13728-017-0056-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiovascular (CV) and thermal responses to metabolically demanding multi-day military operations in extreme cold-weather environments are not well described. Characterization of these operations will provide greater insights into possible performance capabilities and cold injury risk. METHODS Soldiers from two cold-weather field training exercises (FTX) were studied during 3-day (study 1, n = 18, age: 20 ± 1 year, height: 182 ± 7 cm, mass: 82 ± 9 kg) and 4-day (study 2, n = 10, age: 20 ± 1 year, height: 182 ± 6 cm, mass: 80.7 ± 8.3 kg) ski marches in the Arctic. Ambient temperature ranged from -18 to -4 °C during both studies. Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE, from doubly labeled water), heart rate (HR), deep body (Tpill), and torso (Ttorso) skin temperature (obtained in studies 1 and 2) as well as finger (Tfing), toe (Ttoe), wrist, and calf temperatures (study 2) were measured. RESULTS TDEE was 6821 ± 578 kcal day-1 and 6394 ± 544 for study 1 and study 2, respectively. Mean HR ranged from 120 to 140 bpm and mean Tpill ranged between 37.5 and 38.0 °C during skiing in both studies. At rest, mean Tpill ranged from 36.0 to 36.5 °C, (lowest value recorded was 35.5 °C). Mean Tfing ranged from 32 to 35 °C during exercise and dropped to 15 °C during rest, with some Tfing values as low as 6-10 °C. Ttoe was above 30 °C during skiing but dropped to 15-20 °C during rest. CONCLUSIONS Daily energy expenditures were among the highest observed for a military training exercise, with moderate exercise intensity levels (~65% age-predicted maximal HR) observed. The short-term cold-weather training did not elicit high CV and Tpill strain. Tfing and Ttoe were also well maintained while skiing, but decreased to values associated with thermal discomfort at rest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John W Castellani
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Marissa G Spitz
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Anthony J Karis
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Svein Martini
- Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Kjeller, Norway
| | - Andrew J Young
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Lee M Margolis
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - J Phillip Karl
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Nancy E Murphy
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Xiaojiang Xu
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Scott J Montain
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Jamie A Bohn
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| | - Hilde K Teien
- Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Kjeller, Norway
| | - Pål H Stenberg
- General Defence Material/Catering and Combat Feeding Section, Norwegian Navy, Rodskferveien, Norway
| | | | - Stefan M Pasiakos
- United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, 10 General Greene Avenue, Bldg 42, Natick, MA 01760 USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Lucas SJE, Helge JW, Schütz UHW, Goldman RF, Cotter JD. Moving in extreme environments: extreme loading; carriage versus distance. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2016; 5:6. [PMID: 27110357 PMCID: PMC4840901 DOI: 10.1186/s13728-016-0047-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This review addresses human capacity for movement in the context of extreme loading and with it the combined effects of metabolic, biomechanical and gravitational stress on the human body. This topic encompasses extreme duration, as occurs in ultra-endurance competitions (e.g. adventure racing and transcontinental races) and expeditions (e.g. polar crossings), to the more gravitationally limited load carriage (e.g. in the military context). Juxtaposed to these circumstances is the extreme metabolic and mechanical unloading associated with space travel, prolonged bedrest and sedentary lifestyle, which may be at least as problematic, and are therefore included as a reference, e.g. when considering exposure, dangers and (mal)adaptations. As per the other reviews in this series, we describe the nature of the stress and the associated consequences; illustrate relevant regulations, including why and how they are set; present the pros and cons for self versus prescribed acute and chronic exposure; describe humans' (mal)adaptations; and finally suggest future directions for practice and research. In summary, we describe adaptation patterns that are often U or J shaped and that over time minimal or no load carriage decreases the global load carrying capacity and eventually leads to severe adverse effects and manifest disease under minimal absolute but high relative loads. We advocate that further understanding of load carrying capacity and the inherent mechanisms leading to adverse effects may advantageously be studied in this perspective. With improved access to insightful and portable technologies, there are some exciting possibilities to explore these questions in this context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J. E. Lucas
- />School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT UK
- />Department of Physiology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Jørn W. Helge
- />Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Uwe H. W. Schütz
- />Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- />Orthopaedic Consulting Office at the Green Tower and Medical Pain Centre Lake Constance–Upper Swabia, Ravensburg, Germany
| | | | - James D. Cotter
- />School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Human physiological responses to cold exposure: Acute responses and acclimatization to prolonged exposure. Auton Neurosci 2016; 196:63-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2016.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
11
|
Heil K, Thomas R, Robertson G, Porter A, Milner R, Wood A. Freezing and non-freezing cold weather injuries: a systematic review. Br Med Bull 2016; 117:79-93. [PMID: 26872856 DOI: 10.1093/bmb/ldw001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The debilitating impact of cold weather on the human body is one of the world's oldest recorded injuries. The severe and life-changing damage which can be caused is now more commonly seen recreationally in extreme outdoor sports rather than in occupational settings such as the military. The diagnosis and treatment of these injuries need to be completed carefully but quickly to reduce the risk of loss of limb and possibly life. Therefore, we have conducted a systematic review of the literature surrounding cold weather injuries (CWIs) to ascertain the epidemiology and current management strategies. SOURCES OF DATA Medline (PubMED), EMBASE, CINHAL, Cochrane Collaboration Database, Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar. AREAS OF AGREEMENT IMMEDIATE FIELD TREATMENT The risk of freeze thaw freeze injuries. Delayed surgical intervention when possible. Different epidemiology of freezing and non-freezing injuries. AREAS OF CONTROVERSY Prophylatic use of antibiotics; the use of vasodilators surgical and medical. GROWING POINTS The use of ilioprost and PFG2a for the treatment of deep frostbite. AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH The treatment of non-freezing CWIs with their long-term follow-up.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Greg Robertson
- Edinburgh Orthopaedic Trauma Unit, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Anna Porter
- Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Castellani JW, Tipton MJ. Cold Stress Effects on Exposure Tolerance and Exercise Performance. Compr Physiol 2015; 6:443-69. [PMID: 26756639 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c140081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cold weather can have deleterious effects on health, tolerance, and performance. This paper will review the physiological responses and external factors that impact cold tolerance and physical performance. Tolerance is defined as the ability to withstand cold stress with minimal changes in physiological strain. Physiological and pathophysiological responses to short-term (cold shock) and long-term cold water and air exposure are presented. Factors (habituation, anthropometry, sex, race, and fitness) that influence cold tolerance are also reviewed. The impact of cold exposure on physical performance, especially aerobic performance, has not been thoroughly studied. The few studies that have been done suggest that aerobic performance is degraded in cold environments. Potential physiological mechanisms (decreases in deep body and muscle temperature, cardiovascular, and metabolism) are discussed. Likewise, strength and power are also degraded during cold exposure, primarily through a decline in muscle temperature. The review also discusses the concept of thermoregulatory fatigue, a reduction in the thermal effector responses of shivering and vasoconstriction, as a result of multistressor factors, including exhaustive exercise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John W Castellani
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael J Tipton
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Kim K, Suzuki K, Peake J, Ahn N, Ogawa K, Hong C, Kim S, Lee I, Park J. Physiological and leukocyte subset responses to exercise and cold exposure in cold-acclimatized skaters. Biol Sport 2014; 31:39-48. [PMID: 24917688 PMCID: PMC3994584 DOI: 10.5604/20831862.1086731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated physiological responses and changes in circulating immune cells following exercise in cold and thermoneutral conditions. Participants were short track skaters (n=9) who were acclimatized to cold conditions, and inline skaters (n=10) who were not acclimatized. All skaters were young, and skating at a recreational level three days per week for at least one year. Using a cross-over design, study variables were measured during 60 min of submaximal cycling (65% V.O2max) in cold (ambient temperature: 5±1°C, relative humidity: 41±9%) and thermoneutral conditions (ambient temperature: 21±1°C, relative humidity: 35±5%). Heart rate, blood lactate and tympanic temperature were measured at rest, during exercise and recovery. Plasma cortisol, calprotectin and circulating blood cell numbers were measured before and after 60 min of cold or thermoneutral conditions, and during recovery from exercise. Heart rate was lower in both groups during exercise in cold versus thermoneutral conditions (P<0.05). The increase in total leukocytes during recovery was primarily due to an increase in neutrophils in both groups. The cold-acclimatized group activated neutrophils after exercise in cold exposure, whereas the non-acclimatized group activated lymphocyte and cortisol after exercise in cold exposure. Lymphocyte subsets significantly changed in both groups over time during recovery as compared to rest. Immediately after exercise in both groups, CD16+ and CD69+ cells were elevated compared to rest or before exercise in both conditions. Acclimatization to exercise in the cold does not appear to influence exercise-induced immune changes in cold conditions, with the possible exception of neutrophils, lymphocytes and cortisol concentration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Kim
- Department of Physical Education, College of Physical Education, Keimyung University, Daegu, Korea
| | - K Suzuki
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - J Peake
- School of Human Movement Studies, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - N Ahn
- Department of Physical Education, College of Physical Education, Keimyung University, Daegu, Korea
| | - K Ogawa
- Research Team for Social Participation and Health Promotion, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ch Hong
- Department of Physical Education, College of Physical Education, Keimyung University, Daegu, Korea
| | - S Kim
- Department of Physical Education, College of Physical Education, Keimyung University, Daegu, Korea
| | - I Lee
- The Center for Traditional Microorganism Resources, Keimyung University, Daegu, Korea
| | - J Park
- Department of Immunology, College of Medicine, Keimyung University, Daegu, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Spitz MG, Kenefick RW, Mitchell JB. The effects of elapsed time after warm-up on subsequent exercise performance in a cold environment. J Strength Cond Res 2013; 28:1351-7. [PMID: 24149749 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Athletes often compete in cold environments and may face delays because of weather or race logistics between performance of a warm-up and the start of the race. This study sought to determine, (a) whether a delay after warm-up affects subsequent time trial (TT) performance and (b) if exposure to a cold environment has an additive effect. We hypothesized that after a warm-up, 30 minutes of rest in a cold environment would negatively affect subsequent rowing and running performance. In a temperate (temp; 24° C) or cold (cold; 5° C) environment, 5 rowers (33 ± 10 years; 83 ± 12 kg) and 5 runners (23 ± 2 years; 65 ± 8 kg) performed a 15-minute standardized warm-up followed by a 5- or 30-minute rest and then performed a 2-km rowing or 2.4 km running TT. The 5-minute rest following warm-up in the temperate environment (5Temp) served as the control trial to which the other experimental trials (5Cold; 30Temp; and 30Cold) were compared. Heart rate, lactate, and esophageal (Tes) and skin (Tsk) temperatures were measured throughout. Postrest and post-TT, Tes, and Tsk were lowest in the 30Cold trials. The greatest decrement in TT performance vs. 5Temp occurred in 30Cold (-4.0%; difference of 20 seconds). This difference is considered to have practical importance, as it was greater than the reported day-to-day variation for events of this type. We conclude that longer elapsed time following warm-up, combined with cold air exposure, results in potentially important reductions in exercise performance. Athletes should consider the appropriate timing of warm-up. In addition, performance may be preserved by maintaining skin and core temperatures following a warm-up, via clothing or other means.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marissa G Spitz
- 1Department of Kinesiology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas; and 2Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Gagnon DD, Rintamäki H, Gagnon SS, Cheung SS, Herzig KH, Porvari K, Kyröläinen H. Cold exposure enhances fat utilization but not non-esterified fatty acids, glycerol or catecholamines availability during submaximal walking and running. Front Physiol 2013; 4:99. [PMID: 23675353 PMCID: PMC3650516 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2013.00099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cold exposure modulates the use of carbohydrates (CHOs) and fat during exercise. This phenomenon has mostly been observed in controlled cycling studies, but not during walking and running when core temperature and oxygen consumption are controlled, as both may alter energy metabolism. This study aimed at examining energy substrate availability and utilization during walking and running in the cold when core temperature and oxygen consumption are maintained. Ten lightly clothed male subjects walked or ran for 60-min, at 50% and 70% of maximal oxygen consumption, respectively, in a climatic chamber set at 0°C or 22°C. Thermal, cardiovascular, and oxidative responses were measured every 15-min during exercise. Blood samples for serum non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), glycerol, glucose, beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), plasma catecholamines, and serum lipids were collected immediately prior, and at 30- and 60-min of exercise. Skin temperature strongly decreased while core temperature did not change during cold trials. Heart rate (HR) was also lower in cold trials. A rise in fat utilization in the cold was seen through lower respiratory quotient (RQ) (-0.03 ± 0.02), greater fat oxidation (+0.14 ± 0.13 g · min(-1)) and contribution of fat to total energy expenditure (+1.62 ± 1.99 kcal · min(-1)). No differences from cold exposure were observed in blood parameters. During submaximal walking and running, a greater reliance on derived fat sources occurs in the cold, despite the absence of concurrent alterations in NEFAs, glycerol, or catecholamine concentrations. This disparity may suggest a greater reliance on intra-muscular energy sources such as triglycerides during both walking and running.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominique D. Gagnon
- Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland
| | - Hannu Rintamäki
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of OuluOulu, Finland
- Finnish Institute of Occupational HealthOulu, Finland
| | - Sheila S. Gagnon
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, School of Physical Therapy, University of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada
| | - Stephen S. Cheung
- Department of Kinesiology, Brock UniversitySt. Catharines, ON, Canada
| | - Karl-Heinz Herzig
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of OuluOulu, Finland
- Department of Psychiatry, Kuopio University HospitalKuopio, Finland
| | - Katja Porvari
- Department of Forensic Medicine, University of OuluOulu, Finland
| | - Heikki Kyröläinen
- Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Makranz C, Heled Y, Moran DS. Hypothermia following exertional heat stroke treatment. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111:2359-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-011-1863-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
17
|
Muller MD, Muller SM, Ryan EJ, Bellar DM, Kim CH, Glickman EL. Pain and thermal sensation in the cold: the effect of interval versus continuous exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 111:979-87. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1726-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
18
|
Muller MD, Ryan EJ, Bellar DM, Kim CH, Blankfield RP, Muller SM, Glickman EL. The influence of interval versus continuous exercise on thermoregulation, torso hemodynamics, and finger dexterity in the cold. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 109:857-67. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1416-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
19
|
Wilson TE, Sauder CL, Kearney ML, Kuipers NT, Leuenberger UA, Monahan KD, Ray CA. Skin-surface cooling elicits peripheral and visceral vasoconstriction in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2007; 103:1257-62. [PMID: 17673561 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00401.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin-surface cooling elicits a pronounced systemic pressor response, which has previously been reported to be associated with peripheral vasoconstriction and may not fully account for the decrease in systemic vascular conductance. To test the hypothesis that whole body skin-surface cooling would also induce renal and splanchnic vasoconstriction, 14 supine subjects performed 26 skin-surface cooling trials (15-18 degrees C water perfused through a tube-lined suit for 20 min). Oral and mean skin temperature, heart rate, stroke volume (Doppler ultrasound), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), cutaneous blood velocity (laser-Doppler), and mean blood velocity of the brachial, celiac, renal, and superior mesenteric arteries (Doppler ultrasound) were measured during normothermia and skin-surface cooling. Cardiac output (heart rate x stroke volume) and indexes of vascular conductance (flux or blood velocity/MAP) were calculated. Skin-surface cooling increased MAP (n = 26; 78 +/- 5 to 88 +/- 5 mmHg; mean +/- SD) and decreased mean skin temperature (n = 26; 33.7 +/- 0.7 to 27.5 +/- 1.2 degrees C) and cutaneous (n = 12; 0.93 +/- 0.68 to 0.36 +/- 0.20 flux/mmHg), brachial (n = 10; 32 +/- 15 to 20 +/- 12), celiac (n = 8; 85 +/- 22 to 73 +/- 22 cm.s(-1).mmHg(-1)), superior mesenteric (n = 8; 55 +/- 16 to 48 +/- 10 cm.s(-1).mmHg(-1)), and renal (n = 8; 74 +/- 26 to 64 +/- 20 cm.s(-1).mmHg(-1); all P < 0.05) vascular conductance, without altering oral temperature, cardiac output, heart rate, or stroke volume. These data identify decreases in vascular conductance of skin and of brachial, celiac, superior mesenteric, and renal arteries. Thus it appears that vasoconstriction in both peripheral and visceral arteries contributes importantly to the pressor response produced during skin-surface cooling in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thad E Wilson
- Heart and Vascular Institute, General Clinical Research Center, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Young AJ, Castellani JW. Exertional fatigue and cold exposure: mechanisms of hiker's hypothermia. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2007; 32:793-8. [PMID: 17622297 DOI: 10.1139/h07-041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Participants in prolonged, physically demanding activities in cold weather are at risk of a condition known as “hiker's hypothermia”. During exposure to cold weather, the increased gradient favoring body heat loss to the environment must be balanced by physiological responses, clothing, and behavioral strategies that conserve body heat stores, or else body temperature will decline. The primary human physiological responses elicited by cold exposure are shivering and peripheral vasoconstriction. Shivering increases thermogenesis and replaces body heat losses, while peripheral vasoconstriction improves thermal insulation of the body and retards the rate of heat loss. A body of scientific literature supports the concept that prolonged and (or) repeated cold exposure, fatigue induced by sustained physical exertion, or both together can impair shivering and vasoconstrictor response to cold. The mechanisms accounting for this thermoregulatory impairment are not clear, but the possibility that changes in blood glucose availability or sympathetic responsiveness to cold due to exertion and fatigue merit further research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Young
- US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Kansas St., Natick, MA 01760-5007, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Hawkins MN, Raven PB, Snell PG, Stray-Gundersen J, Levine BD. American College of Sports Medicine position stand: prevention of cold injuries during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39:103-7. [PMID: 17218891 DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000241641.75101.64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
It is the position of the American College of Sports Medicine that exercise can be performed safely in most cold-weather environments without incurring cold-weather injuries. The key to prevention is use of a comprehensive risk management strategy that: a) identifies/assesses the cold hazard; b) identifies/assesses contributing factors for cold-weather injuries; c) develops controls to mitigate cold stress/strain; d) implements controls into formal plans; and e) utilizes administrative oversight to ensure controls are enforced or modified. The American College of Sports Medicine recommends that: 1) coaches/athletes/medical personnel know the signs/symptoms and risk factors for hypothermia, frostbite, and non-freezing cold injuries, identify individuals susceptible to cold injuries, and have the latest up-to-date information about current and future weather conditions before conducting training sessions or competitions; 2) cold-weather clothing be chosen based on each individual's requirements and that standardized clothing ensembles not be mandated for entire groups; 3) the wind-chill temperature index be used to estimate the relative risk of frostbite and that heightened surveillance of exercisers be used at wind-chill temperatures below -27 degrees C (-18 degrees F); and 4) individuals with asthma and cardiovascular disease can exercise in cold environments, but should be monitored closely.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan N Hawkins
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Presbyterian Hospital of Dallas, 7232 Greenville Avenue, Dallas, TX 75231, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Kenefick RW, Mahood NV, Hazzard MP, Quinn TJ, Castellani JW. Hypohydration effects on thermoregulation during moderate exercise in the cold. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 92:565-70. [PMID: 15045503 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-004-1079-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/09/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Hyperosmotic hypovolemia impairs vasoconstriction during sedentary cold exposure. The purpose of this study was to determine whether hypohydration alters thermoregulation and cardiovascular responses to exercise in cold air. On four occasions, eight males [35.1 (2.7) years, 175.5 (3.1) cm, 73.3 (2.6) kg, 57.2 (2.6) ml kg(-1) min(-1) maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2max)), 19.6 (2.4)% fat] walked, in t-shirt, shorts, and shoes, at 50% VO(2max), for 60 min in either a 4 degrees C (Cold) or a 25 degrees C (Temperate) environment in both hypohydrated state (HYPO, -4% body mass) and euhydrated state (EU). During exercise-cold stress, rectal temperature ( T(re)), mean weighted skin temperature, heart rate (HR), cardiac output (CO), and stroke volume (SV) were measured every 20 min. Mean weighted skin temperature values were not different between HYPO and EU but were lower ( P<0.05) in Cold versus Temperate trials. T(re) was not different ( P>0.05) between HYPO-Cold and EU-Cold. CO and SV were not different within hydration states and were not different between Cold and Temperate trials ( P<0.05). HR was not different between HYPO-Cold and EU-Cold. These data demonstrate that moderate intensity exercise in the cold while hypohydrated does not alter metabolic heat production, skin temperatures and heat loss, nor does it increase thermoregulatory and cardiovascular strain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Kenefick
- Department of Kinesiology, The University of New Hampshire, New Hampshire Hall, NH 03824, Durham, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Castellani JW, Stulz DA, Degroot DW, Blanchard LA, Cadarette BS, Nindl BC, Montain SJ. Eighty-four hours of sustained operations alter thermoregulation during cold exposure. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35:175-81. [PMID: 12544652 DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200301000-00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED PURPOSE; This study examined the effects of short-term (3.5 d) sustained military operations (SUSOPS) on thermoregulatory responses to cold stress. METHODS Ten men (22.8 +/- 1.4 yr) were assessed during a cold-air test (CAT) after a control week (control) and again after an 84-h SUSOPS (sleep = 2 h.d (-1), energy intake = approximately 1650 kcal.d(-1), and energy expenditure = approximately 4500 kcal.d(-1). CAT consisted of a resting subject (seminude) being exposed to an ambient temperature ramp from 25 degrees C to 10 degrees C during the initial 30 min of CAT, with the ambient temperature then remaining at 10 degrees C for an additional 150 min. RESULTS SUSOPS decreased (P< 0.05) body weight, % body fat, and fat-free mass by 3.9 kg, 1.6%, and 1.8 kg, respectively. During CAT, rectal temperature decreased to a greater extent (P< 0.05) after SUSOPS (0.52 +/- 0.09 degrees C) versus control (0.45 +/- 0.12 degrees C). Metabolic heat production was lower (P< 0.05) after SUSOPS at min 30 (55.4 +/- 3.3 W.m (-2)) versus control (66.9 +/- 4.4 W.m(-2)). Examination of the mean body temperature-metabolic heat production relationship indicated that the threshold for shivering was lower (P< 0.05) after SUSOPS (34.8 +/- 0.2 degrees C) versus control (35.8 +/- 0.2 degrees C). Mean weighted skin temperatures ( degrees C) were lower during the initial 1.5 h of CAT in SUSOPS versus control. Heat debt was similar between trials. CONCLUSION These results indicate that sustained (84-h) military operations leads to greater declines in core temperature, due to either a lag in the initial shivering response or heat redistribution secondary to an insulative acclimation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John W Castellani
- US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine. Natick, MA 01760-5007, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Castellani JW, M Brenner IK, Rhind SG. Cold exposure: human immune responses and intracellular cytokine expression. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34:2013-20. [PMID: 12471310 DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200212000-00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
It is commonly believed that exposure to cold environmental temperatures depresses immune function and increases the risk for infection. This review paper will 1) present an overview of human physiological responses to cold exposure, 2) present the human studies examining the effects of cold exposure on immune responses, and 3) summarize recent experiments from our laboratories examining the effects of exercise and fatigue on immune responses during subsequent cold exposure. Based on the review of the literature, there is no support for the concept that cold exposure depresses immune function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John W Castellani
- USARIEM, Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, 42 Kansas Street, Natick, MA 01760-5007, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Young AJ, Castellani JW. Exertion-induced fatigue and thermoregulation in the cold. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2001; 128:769-76. [PMID: 11282320 DOI: 10.1016/s1095-6433(01)00282-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cold exposure facilitates body heat loss which can reduce body temperature, unless mitigated by enhanced heat conservation or increased heat production. When behavioral strategies inadequately defend body temperature, vasomotor and thermogenic responses are elicited, both of which are modulated if not mediated by sympathetic nervous activation. Both exercise and shivering increase metabolic heat production which helps offset body heat losses in the cold. However, exercise also increases peripheral blood flow, in turn facilitating heat loss, an effect that can persist for some time after exercise ceases. Whether exercise alleviates or exacerbates heat debt during cold exposure depends on the heat transfer coefficient of the environment, mode of activity and exercise intensity. Prolonged exhaustive exercise leading to energy substrate depletion could compromise maintenance of thermal balance in the cold simply by precluding continuation of further exercise and the associated thermogenesis. Hypoglycemia impairs shivering, but this appears to be centrally mediated, rather than a limitation to peripheral energy metabolism. Research is equivocal regarding the importance of muscle glycogen depletion in explaining shivering impairments. Recent research suggests that when acute exercise leads to fatigue without depleting energy stores, vasoconstrictor responses to cold are impaired, thus body heat conservation becomes degraded. Fatigue that was induced by chronic overexertion sustained over many weeks, appeared to delay the onset of shivering until body temperature fell lower than when subjects were rested, as well as impair vasoconstrictor responses. When heavy physical activity is coupled with underfeeding for prolonged periods, the resulting negative energy balance leads to loss of body mass, and the corresponding reduction in tissue insulation, in turn, compromises thermal balance by facilitating conductive transfer of body heat from core to shell. The possibility that impairments in thermoregulatory responses to cold associated with exertional fatigue are mediated by blunted sympathetic nervous responsiveness to cold is suggested by some experimental observations and merits further study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A J Young
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA 01760-5007, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Castellani JW, Young AJ, Degroot DW, Stulz DA, Cadarette BS, Rhind SG, Zamecnik J, Shek PN, Sawka MN. Thermoregulation during cold exposure after several days of exhaustive exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2001; 90:939-46. [PMID: 11181604 DOI: 10.1152/jappl.2001.90.3.939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the hypothesis that several days of exhaustive exercise would impair thermoregulatory effector responses to cold exposure, leading to an accentuated core temperature reduction compared with exposure of the same individual to cold in a rested condition. Thirteen men (10 experimental and 3 control) performed a cold-wet walk (CW) for up to 6 h (6 rest-work cycles, each 1 h in duration) in 5 degrees C air on three occasions. One cycle of CW consisted of 10 min of standing in the rain (5.4 cm/h) followed by 45 min of walking (1.34 m/s, 5.4 m/s wind). Clothing was water saturated at the start of each walking period (0.75 clo vs. 1.1 clo when dry). The initial CW trial (day 0) was performed (afternoon) with subjects rested before initiation of exercise-cold exposure. During the next 7 days, exhaustive exercise (aerobic, anaerobic, resistive) was performed for 4 h each morning. Two subsequent CW trials were performed on the afternoon of days 3 and 7, approximately 2.5 h after cessation of fatiguing exercise. For controls, no exhaustive exercise was performed on any day. Thermoregulatory responses and body temperature during CW were not different on days 0, 3, and 7 in the controls. In the experimental group, mean skin temperature was higher (P < 0.05) during CW on days 3 and 7 than on day 0. Rectal temperature was lower (P < 0.05) and the change in rectal temperature was greater (P < 0.05) during the 6th h of CW on day 3. Metabolic heat production during CW was similar among trials. Warmer skin temperatures during CW after days 3 and 7 indicate that vasoconstrictor responses to cold, but not shivering responses, are impaired after multiple days of severe physical exertion. These findings suggest that susceptibility to hypothermia is increased by exertional fatigue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J W Castellani
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts 01760-5007, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|