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Daily acute intermittent hypoxia enhances serotonergic innervation of hypoglossal motor nuclei in rats with and without cervical spinal injury. Exp Neurol 2022; 347:113903. [PMID: 34699788 PMCID: PMC8848979 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Intermittent hypoxia elicits protocol-dependent effects on hypoglossal (XII) motor plasticity. Whereas low-dose, acute intermittent hypoxia (AIH) elicits serotonin-dependent plasticity in XII motor neurons, high-dose, chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) elicits neuroinflammation that undermines AIH-induced plasticity. Preconditioning with repeated AIH and mild CIH enhance AIH-induced XII motor plasticity. Since intermittent hypoxia pre-conditioning could enhance serotonin-dependent XII motor plasticity by increasing serotonergic innervation density of the XII motor nuclei, we tested the hypothesis that 3 distinct intermittent hypoxia protocols commonly studied to elicit plasticity (AIH) or simulate aspects of sleep apnea (CIH) differentially affect XII serotonergic innervation. Sleep apnea and associated CIH are common in people with cervical spinal injuries and, since repetitive AIH is emerging as a promising therapeutic strategy to improve respiratory and non-respiratory motor function after spinal injury, we also tested the hypotheses that XII serotonergic innervation is increased by repetitive AIH and/or CIH in rats with cervical C2 hemisections (C2Hx). Serotonergic innervation was assessed via immunofluorescence in male Sprague Dawley rats, with and without C2Hx (beginning 8 weeks post-injury) exposed to 28 days of: 1) normoxia; 2) daily AIH (10, 5-min 10.5% O2 episodes per day; 5-min normoxic intervals); 3) mild CIH (5-min 10.5% O2 episodes; 5-min intervals; 8 h/day); and 4) moderate CIH (2-min 10.5% O2 episodes; 2-min intervals; 8 h/day). Daily AIH, but neither CIH protocol, increased the area of serotonergic immunolabeling in the XII motor nuclei in both intact and injured rats. C2Hx per se had no effect on XII serotonergic innervation density. Thus, daily AIH may increases XII serotonergic innervation and function, enhancing the capacity for serotonin-dependent, AIH-induced plasticity in upper airway motor neurons. Such effects may preserve upper airway patency and/or swallowing ability in people with cervical spinal cord injuries and other clinical disorders that compromise breathing and airway defense.
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Mitchell GS, Baker TL. Respiratory neuroplasticity: Mechanisms and translational implications of phrenic motor plasticity. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2022; 188:409-432. [PMID: 35965036 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-91534-2.00016-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Widespread appreciation that neuroplasticity is an essential feature of the neural system controlling breathing has emerged only in recent years. In this chapter, we focus on respiratory motor plasticity, with emphasis on the phrenic motor system. First, we define related but distinct concepts: neuromodulation and neuroplasticity. We then focus on mechanisms underlying two well-studied models of phrenic motor plasticity: (1) phrenic long-term facilitation following brief exposure to acute intermittent hypoxia; and (2) phrenic motor facilitation after prolonged or recurrent bouts of diminished respiratory neural activity. Advances in our understanding of these novel and important forms of plasticity have been rapid and have already inspired translation in multiple respects: (1) development of novel therapeutic strategies to preserve/restore breathing function in humans with severe neurological disorders, such as spinal cord injury and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; and (2) the discovery that similar plasticity also occurs in nonrespiratory motor systems. Indeed, the realization that similar plasticity occurs in respiratory and nonrespiratory motor neurons inspired clinical trials to restore leg/walking and hand/arm function in people living with chronic, incomplete spinal cord injury. Similar application may be possible to other clinical disorders that compromise respiratory and non-respiratory movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon S Mitchell
- Breathing Research and Therapeutics Center, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
| | - Tracy L Baker
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
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3
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Nichols NL, Mitchell GS. Mechanisms of severe acute intermittent hypoxia-induced phrenic long-term facilitation. J Neurophysiol 2021; 125:1146-1156. [PMID: 33566744 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00691.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Moderate acute intermittent hypoxia (mAIH; 35-55 mmHg PaO2) elicits phrenic long-term facilitation (pLTF) by a mechanism that requires activation of Gq protein-coupled serotonin type 2 receptors, MEK/ERK MAP kinase, and NADPH oxidase activity and is constrained by cAMP-PKA signaling. In contrast, severe AIH (sAIH; 25-35 mmHg PaO2) elicits Gs protein-coupled adenosine type 2 A receptor-dependent pLTF. Another Gs protein-coupled receptor, serotonin 7 receptors, elicits phrenic motor facilitation (pMF) by a mechanism that requires exchange protein activated by cyclic AMP (EPAC) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt (PI3K/Akt) activation and is constrained by NADPH oxidase activity. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the same downstream signaling mechanisms giving rise to serotonin 7 (vs. serotonin 2) receptor-induced pMF underlie sAIH-induced pLTF. In anesthetized rats, sAIH-induced pLTF was compared after pretreatment with intrathecal (C4) injections of inhibitors for: 1) EPAC (ESI-05); 2) MEK/ERK (UO126); 3) PKA (KT-5720); 4) PI3K/Akt (PI828); and 5) NADPH oxidase (apocynin). In partial agreement with our hypothesis, sAIH-induced pLTF was abolished by ESI-05 and PI828 and marginally enhanced by apocynin but, surprisingly, was abolished by UO126 and attenuated by KT-5720. Mechanisms of sAIH-induced pLTF reflect elements of both Gq and Gs pathways to pMF, likely as a consequence of the complex, cross-talk interactions between them.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Distinct mechanisms give rise to pLTF induced by moderate and severe AIH. We demonstrate that, unlike moderate AIH, severe AIH-induced pLTF requires EPAC and PI3K/Akt and is marginally constrained by NADPH oxidase activity. Surprisingly, sAIH-induced pLTF requires MEK/ERK activity similar to moderate AIH-induced pLTF and is reduced by PKA inhibition. We suggest sAIH-induced pLTF arises from complex interactions between dominant mechanisms characteristic of moderate versus severe AIH-induced pLTF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L Nichols
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
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Borkowski LF, Nichols NL. Differential mechanisms are required for phrenic long-term facilitation over the course of motor neuron loss following CTB-SAP intrapleural injections. Exp Neurol 2020; 334:113460. [PMID: 32916172 PMCID: PMC10823911 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Selective elimination of respiratory motor neurons using intrapleural injections of cholera toxin B fragment conjugated to saporin (CTB-SAP) mimics motor neuron death and respiratory deficits observed in rat models of neuromuscular diseases. This CTB-SAP model allows us to study the impact of motor neuron death on the output of surviving phrenic motor neurons. After 7(d) days of CTB-SAP, phrenic long-term facilitation (pLTF, a form of respiratory plasticity) is enhanced, but returns towards control levels at 28d. However, the mechanism responsible for this difference in magnitude of pLTF is unknown. In naïve rats, pLTF predominately requires 5-HT2 receptors, the new synthesis of BDNF, and MEK/ERK signaling; however, pLTF can alternatively be induced via A2A receptors, the new synthesis of TrkB, and PI3K/Akt signaling. Since A2A receptor-dependent pLTF is enhanced in naïve rats, we suggest that 7d CTB-SAP treated rats utilize the alternative mechanism for pLTF. Here, we tested the hypothesis that pLTF following CTB-SAP is: 1) TrkB and PI3K/Akt, not BDNF and MEK/ERK, dependent at 7d; and 2) BDNF and MEK/ERK, not TrkB and PI3K/Akt, dependent at 28d. Adult Sprague Dawley male rats were anesthetized, paralyzed, ventilated, and were exposed to acute intermittent hypoxia (AIH; 3, 5 min bouts of 10.5% O2) following bilateral, intrapleural injections at 7d and 28d of: 1) CTB-SAP (25 μg), or 2) un-conjugated CTB and SAP (control). Intrathecal C4 delivery included either: 1) small interfering RNA that targeted BDNF or TrkB mRNA; 2) UO126 (MEK/ERK inhibitor); or 3) PI828 (PI3K/Akt inhibitor). Our data suggest that pLTF in 7d CTB-SAP treated rats is elicited primarily through TrkB and PI3K/Akt-dependent mechanisms, whereas BDNF and MEK/ERK-dependent mechanisms induce pLTF in 28d CTB-SAP treated rats. This project increases our understanding of respiratory plasticity and its implications for breathing following motor neuron death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren F Borkowski
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, United States of America
| | - Nicole L Nichols
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, United States of America.
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5
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Perim RR, Kubilis PS, Seven YB, Mitchell GS. Hypoxia-induced hypotension elicits adenosine-dependent phrenic long-term facilitation after carotid denervation. Exp Neurol 2020; 333:113429. [PMID: 32735873 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Moderate acute intermittent hypoxia (AIH) elicits a persistent, serotonin-dependent increase in phrenic amplitude, known as phrenic long-term facilitation (pLTF). Although pLTF was originally demonstrated by carotid sinus nerve stimulation, AIH still elicits residual pLTF in carotid denervated (CBX) rats via a distinct, but unknown mechanism. We hypothesized that exaggerated hypoxia-induced hypotension after carotid denervation leads to greater spinal tissue hypoxia and extracellular adenosine accumulation, thereby triggering adenosine 2A receptor (A2A)-dependent pLTF. Phrenic activity, arterial pressure and spinal tissue oxygen pressure were measured in anesthetized CBX rats. Exaggerated hypoxia-induced hypotension after CBX was prevented via intravenous phenylephrine; without the hypotension, spinal tissue hypoxia during AIH was normalized, and residual pLTF was no longer observed. Spinal A2A (MSX-3), but not serotonin 2 receptor (5-HT2) inhibition (ketanserin), abolished residual pLTF in CBX rats. Thus, pLTF regulation may be altered in conditions impairing sympathetic activity and arterial pressure regulation, such as spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael R Perim
- Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Paul S Kubilis
- Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Yasin B Seven
- Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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Andrzejewski K, Jampolska M, Zaremba M, Joniec-Maciejak I, Boguszewski PM, Kaczyńska K. Respiratory pattern and phrenic and hypoglossal nerve activity during normoxia and hypoxia in 6-OHDA-induced bilateral model of Parkinson's disease. J Physiol Sci 2020; 70:16. [PMID: 32160868 PMCID: PMC7066294 DOI: 10.1186/s12576-020-00743-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory disturbances present in Parkinson's disease (PD) are not well understood. Thus, studies in animal models aimed to link brain dopamine (DA) deficits with respiratory impairment are needed. Adult Wistar rats were lesioned with injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the third cerebral ventricle. Two weeks after hypoxic test was performed in whole-body plethysmography chamber, phrenic (PHR) and hypoglossal (HG) nerve activities were recorded in normoxic and hypoxic conditions in anesthetized, vagotomized, paralyzed and mechanically ventilated rats. The effects of activation and blockade of dopaminergic carotid body receptors were investigated during normoxia in anesthetized spontaneously breathing rats. 6-OHDA injection affected resting respiratory pattern in awake animals: an increase in tidal volume and a decrease in respiratory rate had no effect on minute ventilation. Hypoxia magnified the amplitude and minute activity of the PHR and HG nerve of 6-OHDA rats. The ratio of pre-inspiratory to inspiratory HG burst amplitude was reduced in normoxic breathing. Yet, the ratio of pre-inspiratory time to total time of the respiratory cycle was increased during normoxia. 6-OHDA lesion had no impact on DA and domperidone effects on the respiratory pattern, which indicate that peripheral DA receptors are not affected in this model. Analysis of monoamines confirmed substantial striatal depletion of dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline (NA) and reduction of NA content in the brainstem. In bilateral 6-OHDA model changes in activity of both nerves: HG (linked with increased apnea episodes) and PHR are present. Demonstrated respiratory effects could be related to specific depletion of DA and NA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kryspin Andrzejewski
- Department of Respiration Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Monika Jampolska
- Department of Respiration Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Zaremba
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Centre for Preclinical Research (CePT), Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ilona Joniec-Maciejak
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Centre for Preclinical Research (CePT), Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paweł M Boguszewski
- Laboratory of Animal Models, Neurobiology Centre, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kaczyńska
- Department of Respiration Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland.
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Wu MJ, Vinit S, Chen CL, Lee KZ. 5-HT7 Receptor Inhibition Transiently Improves Respiratory Function Following Daily Acute Intermittent Hypercapnic-Hypoxia in Rats With Chronic Midcervical Spinal Cord Contusion. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2020; 34:333-343. [DOI: 10.1177/1545968320905806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Background. Intermittent hypoxia can induce respiratory neuroplasticity to enhance respiratory motor outputs following hypoxic treatment. This type of respiratory neuroplasticity is primarily mediated by the activation of Gq-protein-coupled 5-HT2 receptors and constrained by Gs-protein-coupled 5-HT7 receptors. Objective. The present study hypothesized that the blockade of 5-HT7 receptors can potentiate the effect of intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxia on respiratory function after cervical spinal cord contusion injury. Methods. The ventilatory behaviors of unanesthetized rats with midcervical spinal cord contusions were measured before, during, and after daily acute intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxia (10 episodes of 5 minutes of hypoxia [10% O2, 4% CO2, 86% N2] with 5 minutes of normoxia intervals for 5 days) at 8 weeks postinjury. On a daily basis, 5 minutes before intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxia, rats received either a 5-HT7 receptor antagonist (SB269970, 4 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) or a vehicle (dimethyl sulfoxide). Results. Treatment with intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxia induced a similar increase in tidal volume between rats that received SB269970 and those that received dimethyl sulfoxide within 60 minutes post-hypoxia on the first day. However, after 2 to 3 days of daily acute intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxia, the baseline tidal volumes of rats treated with SB269970 increased significantly. Conclusions. These results suggest that inhibiting the 5-HT7 receptor can transiently improve daily intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxia–induced tidal volume increase in midcervical spinal contused animals. Therefore, combining pharmacological treatment with rehabilitative intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxia training may be an effective strategy for synergistically enhancing respiratory neuroplasticity to improve respiratory function following chronic cervical spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Jane Wu
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Stéphane Vinit
- Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Chun-Lin Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Ze Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Center for Neuroscience, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Institute of Medical Science and Technology, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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8
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Nakamori H, Naitou K, Horii Y, Shimaoka H, Horii K, Sakai H, Yamada A, Furue H, Shiina T, Shimizu Y. Roles of the noradrenergic nucleus locus coeruleus and dopaminergic nucleus A11 region as supraspinal defecation centers in rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2019; 317:G545-G555. [PMID: 31460791 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00062.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that administration of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin into the lumbosacral defecation center caused propulsive contractions of the colorectum. It is known that the monoamines in the spinal cord are released mainly from descending neurons in the brainstem. In fact, stimulation of the medullary raphe nuclei, the origin of descending serotonergic neurons, enhances colorectal motility via the lumbosacral defecation center. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the roles of the noradrenergic nucleus locus coeruleus (LC) and dopaminergic nucleus A11 region in the defecation reflex. Colorectal motility was measured with a balloon in anesthetized rats. Electrical stimulation of the LC and A11 region increased colorectal pressure only when a GABAA receptor antagonist was injected into the lumbosacral spinal cord. The effects of the LC stimulation and A11 region stimulation on colorectal motility were inhibited by antagonists of α1-adrenoceptors and D2-like dopamine receptors injected into the lumbosacral spinal cord, respectively. Spinal injection of a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor augmented the colokinetic effect of LC stimulation. The effect of stimulation of each nucleus was abolished by surgical severing of the parasympathetic pelvic nerves. Our findings demonstrate that activation of descending noradrenergic neurons from the LC and descending dopaminergic neurons from the A11 region causes enhancement of colorectal motility via the lumbosacral defecation center. The present study provides a novel concept that the brainstem monoaminergic nuclei play a role as supraspinal defecation centers.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The present study demonstrates that electrical and chemical stimulations of the locus coeruleus or A11 region augment contractions of the colorectum. The effects of locus coeruleus and A11 stimulations on colorectal motility are due to activation of α1-adrenoceptors and D2-like dopamine receptors in the lumbosacral defecation center, respectively. The present study provides a novel concept that the brainstem monoaminergic nuclei play a role as supraspinal defecation centers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Nakamori
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Laboratory of Physiology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Kiyotada Naitou
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Laboratory of Physiology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Yuuki Horii
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Laboratory of Physiology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Hiroki Shimaoka
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Laboratory of Physiology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Horii
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Laboratory of Physiology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Hiroki Sakai
- Department of Pathogenetic Veterinary Science, Laboratory of Pathology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan.,Center for Highly Advanced Integration of Nano and Life Sciences (G-CHAIN), Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Akihiro Yamada
- Department of Neurophysiology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Japan
| | - Hidemasa Furue
- Department of Neurophysiology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Japan
| | - Takahiko Shiina
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Laboratory of Physiology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Yasutake Shimizu
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Laboratory of Physiology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan.,Center for Highly Advanced Integration of Nano and Life Sciences (G-CHAIN), Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
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9
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Tadjalli A, Mitchell GS. Cervical spinal 5-HT 2A and 5-HT 2B receptors are both necessary for moderate acute intermittent hypoxia-induced phrenic long-term facilitation. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2019; 127:432-443. [PMID: 31219768 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01113.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Serotonin (5-HT) is a key regulator of spinal respiratory motor plasticity. For example, spinal 5-HT receptor activation is necessary for the induction of phrenic long-term facilitation (pLTF), a form of respiratory motor plasticity triggered by moderate acute intermittent hypoxia (mAIH). mAIH-induced pLTF is blocked by cervical spinal application of the broad-spectrum 5-HT-receptor antagonist, methysergide. However, methysergide does not allow distinctions between the relative contributions of different 5-HT receptor subtypes. Intravenous administration of the Gq protein-coupled 5-HT2A/2C receptor antagonist ketanserin blocks mAIH-induced pLTF when administered before, but not after, mAIH; thus, 5-HT2 receptor activation is necessary for the induction but not maintenance of mAIH-induced pLTF. However, systemic ketanserin administration does not identify the site of the relevant 5-HT2A/2C receptors. Furthermore, this approach does not differentiate between the roles of 5-HT2A versus 5-HT2C receptors, nor does it preclude involvement of other Gq protein-coupled metabotropic 5-HT receptors capable of eliciting long-lasting phrenic motor facilitation, such as 5-HT2B receptors. Here we tested the hypothesis that mAIH-induced pLTF requires cervical spinal 5-HT2 receptor activation and determined which 5-HT2 receptor subtypes are involved. Anesthetized, paralyzed, and ventilated adult male Sprague Dawley rats were pretreated intrathecally with cervical (~C3-C5) spinal injections of subtype selective 5-HT2A/2C, 5-HT2B, or 5-HT2C receptor antagonists before mAIH. Whereas cervical spinal 5-HT2C receptor inhibition had no impact on mAIH-induced pLTF, pLTF was no longer observed after pretreatment with either 5-HT2A/2C or 5-HT2B receptor antagonists. Furthermore, spinal pretreatment with an MEK/ERK MAPK inhibitor blocked phrenic motor facilitation elicited by intrathecal injections of 5-HT2A but not 5-HT2B receptor agonists. Thus, mAIH-induced pLTF requires concurrent cervical spinal activation of both 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptors. However, these distinct receptor subtypes contribute to phrenic motor facilitation via distinct downstream signaling cascades that differ in their requirement for ERK MAPK signaling. The demonstration that both 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptors make unique contributions to mAIH-induced pLTF advances our understanding of mechanisms that underlie 5-HT-induced phrenic motor plasticity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Moderate acute intermittent hypoxia (mAIH) triggers a persistent enhancement in phrenic motor output, an effect termed phrenic long-term facilitation (pLTF). mAIH-induced pLTF is blocked by cervical spinal application of the broad-spectrum serotonin (5-HT) receptor antagonist methysergide, demonstrating the need for spinal 5-HT receptor activation. However, the exact type of 5-HT receptors required for initiation of pLTF remains unknown. To the best of out knowledge, the present study is the first to demonstrate that 1) spinal coactivation of two distinct Gq protein-coupled 5-HT2 receptor subtypes is necessary for mAIH-induced pLTF, and 2) these receptors contribute to pLTF via cascades that differ in their requirement for ERK MAPK signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arash Tadjalli
- Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy and the McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy and the McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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10
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Seven YB, Mitchell GS. Mechanisms of compensatory plasticity for respiratory motor neuron death. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2019; 265:32-39. [PMID: 30625378 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory motor neuron death arises from multiple neurodegenerative and traumatic neuromuscular disorders. Despite motor neuron death, compensatory mechanisms minimize its functional impact by harnessing intrinsic mechanisms of compensatory respiratory plasticity. However, the capacity for compensation eventually reaches limits and pathology ensues. Initially, challenges to the system such as increased metabolic demand reveal sub-clinical pathology. With greater motor neuron loss, the eventual result is de-compensation, ventilatory failure, ventilator dependence and then death. In this brief review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of mechanisms giving rise to compensatory respiratory plasticity in response to respiratory motor neuron death including: 1) increased central respiratory drive, 2) plasticity in synapses on spared phrenic motor neurons, 3) enhanced neuromuscular transmission and 4) shifts in respiratory muscle utilization from more affected to less affected motor pools. Some of these compensatory mechanisms may prolong breathing function, but hasten the demise of surviving motor neurons. Improved understanding of these mechanisms and their impact on survival of spared motor neurons will guide future efforts to develop therapeutic interventions that preserve respiratory function with neuromuscular injury/disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasin B Seven
- Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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11
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Lui S, Torontali Z, Tadjalli A, Peever J. Brainstem Nuclei Associated with Mediating Apnea-Induced Respiratory Motor Plasticity. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12709. [PMID: 30139983 PMCID: PMC6107593 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28578-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The respiratory control system is plastic. It has a working memory and is capable of retaining how respiratory stimuli affect breathing by regulating synaptic strength between respiratory neurons. For example, repeated airway obstructions trigger a form of respiratory plasticity that strengthens inspiratory activity of hypoglossal (XII) motoneurons. This form of respiratory plasticity is known as long-term facilitation (LTF) and requires noradrenaline released onto XII motoneurons. However, the brainstem regions responsible for this form of LTF remain unidentified. Here, we used electrophysiology, neuropharmacology and immunohistochemistry in adult rats to identify the brainstem regions involved in mediating LTF. First, we show that repeated airway obstructions induce LTF of XII motoneuron activity and that inactivation of the noradrenergic system prevents LTF. Second, we show that noradrenergic cells in the locus coeruleus (LC), which project to XII motoneurons, are recruited during LTF induction. Third, we show that targeted inactivation of noradrenergic LC cells during LTF induction prevents LTF. And lastly, we show that the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), which has known projections to the LC, is critical for LTF because its inactivation prevents LTF. Our results suggest that both the LC and NTS are involved in mediating apnea-induced LTF, and we hypothesize that a NTS → LC → XII circuit mechanism mediates this form of respiratory motor plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Lui
- Centre for Biological Timing and Cognition, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada.,Departments of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - Zoltan Torontali
- Centre for Biological Timing and Cognition, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada.,Departments of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - Arash Tadjalli
- Centre for Biological Timing and Cognition, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada.,Departments of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - John Peever
- Centre for Biological Timing and Cognition, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada. .,Departments of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada. .,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3G5, Canada.
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12
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Turner S, Streeter KA, Greer J, Mitchell GS, Fuller DD. Pharmacological modulation of hypoxia-induced respiratory neuroplasticity. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2017; 256:4-14. [PMID: 29197629 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2017.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxia elicits complex cell signaling mechanisms in the respiratory control system that can produce long-lasting changes in respiratory motor output. In this article, we review experimental approaches used to elucidate signaling pathways associated with hypoxia, and summarize current hypotheses regarding the intracellular signaling pathways evoked by intermittent exposure to hypoxia. We review data showing that pharmacological treatments can enhance neuroplastic responses to hypoxia. Original data are included to show that pharmacological modulation of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) function can reveal a respiratory neuroplastic response to a single, brief hypoxic exposure in anesthetized mice. Coupling pharmacologic treatments with therapeutic hypoxia paradigms may have rehabilitative value following neurologic injury or during neuromuscular disease. Depending on prevailing conditions, pharmacologic treatments can enable hypoxia-induced expression of neuroplasticity and increased respiratory motor output, or potentially could synergistically interact with hypoxia to more robustly increase motor output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Turner
- University of Florida, College of Public Health and Health Professions, McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Physical Therapy, PO Box 100154, 100 S. Newell Dr, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States; Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Kristi A Streeter
- University of Florida, College of Public Health and Health Professions, McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Physical Therapy, PO Box 100154, 100 S. Newell Dr, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States; Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - John Greer
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- University of Florida, College of Public Health and Health Professions, McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Physical Therapy, PO Box 100154, 100 S. Newell Dr, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States; Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - David D Fuller
- University of Florida, College of Public Health and Health Professions, McKnight Brain Institute, Department of Physical Therapy, PO Box 100154, 100 S. Newell Dr, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States; Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States.
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13
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Mateika JH, Panza G, Alex R, El-Chami M. The impact of intermittent or sustained carbon dioxide on intermittent hypoxia initiated respiratory plasticity. What is the effect of these combined stimuli on apnea severity? Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2017; 256:58-66. [PMID: 29097171 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The following review explores the effect that intermittent or sustained hypercapnia coupled to intermittent hypoxia has on respiratory plasticity. The review explores published work which suggests that intermittent hypercapnia leads to long-term depression of respiration when administered in isolation and prevents the initiation of long-term facilitation when administered in combination with intermittent hypoxia. The review also explores the impact that sustained hypercapnia alone and in combination with intermittent hypoxia has on the magnitude of long-term facilitation. After exploring the outcomes linked to intermittent hypoxia/hypercapnia and intermittent hypoxia/sustained hypercapnia the translational relevance of the outcomes as it relates to breathing stability during sleep is addressed. The likelihood that naturally induced cycles of intermittent hypoxia, coupled to oscillations in carbon dioxide that range between hypocapnia and hypercapnia, do not initiate long-term facilitation is addressed. Moreover, the conditions under which intermittent hypoxia/sustained hypercapnia could serve to improve breathing stability and mitigate co-morbidities associated with sleep apnea are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason H Mateika
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States; Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States; Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States.
| | - Gino Panza
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States; Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States
| | - Raichel Alex
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States; Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States
| | - Mohamad El-Chami
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States; Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States
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14
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Wilkerson JER, Devinney M, Mitchell GS. Intermittent but not sustained moderate hypoxia elicits long-term facilitation of hypoglossal motor output. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2017; 256:15-20. [PMID: 29074449 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Phrenic long-term facilitation (pLTF) is a form of serotonin-dependent respiratory motor plasticity induced by moderate acute intermittent hypoxia (AIH), but not by moderate acute sustained hypoxia (ASH) of similar cumulative duration. Thus, moderate AIH-induced pLTF is sensitive to the pattern of hypoxia. On the other hand, pLTF induced by severe AIH protocols is neither pattern sensitive nor serotonin dependent (it converts to an adenosine-dependent mechanism). Although moderate AIH also induces hypoglossal LTF (hLTF), no data are available concerning its sensitivity/insensitivity to the pattern of hypoxia. Since hLTF following moderate hypoxia is serotonin-dependent, we hypothesized that hLTF is pattern-sensitive, similar to serotonin-dependent pLTF. Integrated hypoglossal nerve activity was recorded in urethane-anesthetized, vagotomized, paralyzed, and ventilated rats exposed to isocapnic AIH (3, 5min episodes of 11% O2) or ASH (a single 25min episode of 11% O2). Similar to previous studies of pLTF, hypoglossal motor output was elevated for more than 1h following AIH (50±20%, p<0.01), but not ASH (-6±9%, p>0.05). Frequency LTF was not observed following either hypoxic exposure. Thus, in agreement with our hypothesis, hypoglossal LTF following moderate AIH is pattern-sensitive, similar to phrenic LTF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia E R Wilkerson
- Department of Comparative Biosciences University of Wisconsin Madison, WI, 53706, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Michael Devinney
- Department of Comparative Biosciences University of Wisconsin Madison, WI, 53706, USA; Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- Department of Comparative Biosciences University of Wisconsin Madison, WI, 53706, USA; Center for Respiratory Research and Rehabilitation Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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15
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Nie X, Zhou L, Wang A, Jin H, Qin Z, Pang J, Wang W, Kang J. Noradrenergic Activation of Hypoglossal Nucleus Modulates the Central Regulation of Genioglossus in Chronic Intermittent Hypoxic Rats. Front Neurol 2017; 8:171. [PMID: 28507531 PMCID: PMC5410562 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuromuscular compensation of the genioglossus muscle can be induced by chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) in obstructive sleep apnea to maintain upper airway stability. Noradrenergic activation of hypoglossal nucleus plays a critical role in the central control of the genioglossus. However, it remains unknown whether norepinephrine takes part in the central regulation of the genioglossus during CIH. Adult male Wistar rats (n = 32) were studied to explore the influence of noradrenergic activation of hypoglossal nucleus on the central control of the genioglossus at different stages of CIH. The rats were divided into four groups: normal control or normoxic (NO) group, CIH group, CIH + normal saline (NS) group, and CIH + prazosin (PZ, α1-adrenergic antagonist) group. PZ (0.2 mM, 60 nl) and NS (0.9%, 60 nl) were microinjected into the hypoglossal nucleus. The responses of the genioglossus corticomotor area to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) were recorded on the 1st, 7th, 14th, and 21st day of CIH. The CIH group showed significantly shorter TMS latencies on days 1, 7, and 14 (3.85 ± 0.37 vs. 4.58 ± 0.42, 3.93 ± 0.17 vs. 4.49 ± 0.55, 3.79 ± 0.38 vs. 4.39 ± 0.30 ms, P < 0.05), and higher TMS amplitudes on day 1 (2.74 ± 0.87 vs. 1.60 ± 0.52 mV, P < 0.05) of CIH than the NO group. Compared to the CIH + NS group, the CIH + PZ group showed decreased TMS responses (longer latencies and lower amplitudes) only on the 14th day of CIH (3.99 ± 0.28 vs. 4.61 ± 0.48 ms, 2.51 ± 0.67 vs. 1.18 ± 0.62 mV, P < 0.05). These results indicated that noradrenergic activation of the hypoglossal nucleus played a role in the central compensation of genioglossus through α1-adrenoceptor on the 14th day of CIH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinshi Nie
- Institute of Respiratory Disease, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Ling Zhou
- Institute of Respiratory Disease, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Aidi Wang
- Institute of Respiratory Disease, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Hongyu Jin
- Institute of Respiratory Disease, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zheng Qin
- Institute of Respiratory Disease, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jian Pang
- The 463rd Hospital of the Chinese PLA, Shenyang, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Institute of Respiratory Disease, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jian Kang
- Institute of Respiratory Disease, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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16
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Catecholaminergic neurons in synaptic connections with pre-Bötzinger complex neurons in the rostral ventrolateral medulla in normoxic and daily acute intermittent hypoxic rats. Exp Neurol 2017; 287:165-175. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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17
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Respiratory neuroplasticity – Overview, significance and future directions. Exp Neurol 2017; 287:144-152. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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18
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Komnenov D, Solarewicz JZ, Afzal F, Nantwi KD, Kuhn DM, Mateika JH. Intermittent hypoxia promotes recovery of respiratory motor function in spinal cord-injured mice depleted of serotonin in the central nervous system. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2016; 121:545-57. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00448.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the effect of repeated daily exposure to intermittent hypoxia (IH) on the recovery of respiratory and limb motor function in mice genetically depleted of central nervous system serotonin. Electroencephalography, diaphragm activity, ventilation, core body temperature, and limb mobility were measured in spontaneously breathing wild-type (Tph2+/+) and tryptophan hydroxylase 2 knockout (Tph2−/−) mice. Following a C2 hemisection, the mice were exposed daily to IH (i.e., twelve 4-min episodes of 10% oxygen interspersed with 4-min normoxic periods followed by a 90-min end-recovery period) or normoxia (i.e., sham protocol, 21% oxygen) for 10 consecutive days. Diaphragm activity recovered to prehemisection levels in the Tph2+/+ and Tph2−/− mice following exposure to IH but not normoxia [Tph2+/+ 1.3 ± 0.2 (SE) vs. 0.3 ± 0.2; Tph2−/− 1.06 ± 0.1 vs. 0.3 ± 0.1, standardized to prehemisection values, P < 0.01]. Likewise, recovery of tidal volume and breathing frequency was evident, although breathing frequency values did not return to prehemisection levels within the time frame of the protocol. Partial recovery of limb motor function was also evident 2 wk after spinal cord hemisection. However, recovery was not dependent on IH or the presence of serotonin in the central nervous system. We conclude that IH promotes recovery of respiratory function but not basic motor tasks. Moreover, we conclude that spontaneous or treatment-induced recovery of respiratory and motor limb function is not dependent on serotonin in the central nervous system in a mouse model of spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragana Komnenov
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Julia Z. Solarewicz
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Fareeza Afzal
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Kwaku D. Nantwi
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Donald M. Kuhn
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan; and
| | - Jason H. Mateika
- John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
- Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
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19
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Pamenter ME, Powell FL. Time Domains of the Hypoxic Ventilatory Response and Their Molecular Basis. Compr Physiol 2016; 6:1345-85. [PMID: 27347896 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c150026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Ventilatory responses to hypoxia vary widely depending on the pattern and length of hypoxic exposure. Acute, prolonged, or intermittent hypoxic episodes can increase or decrease breathing for seconds to years, both during the hypoxic stimulus, and also after its removal. These myriad effects are the result of a complicated web of molecular interactions that underlie plasticity in the respiratory control reflex circuits and ultimately control the physiology of breathing in hypoxia. Since the time domains of the physiological hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR) were identified, considerable research effort has gone toward elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms that mediate these varied responses. This research has begun to describe complicated and plastic interactions in the relay circuits between the peripheral chemoreceptors and the ventilatory control circuits within the central nervous system. Intriguingly, many of these molecular pathways seem to share key components between the different time domains, suggesting that varied physiological HVRs are the result of specific modifications to overlapping pathways. This review highlights what has been discovered regarding the cell and molecular level control of the time domains of the HVR, and highlights key areas where further research is required. Understanding the molecular control of ventilation in hypoxia has important implications for basic physiology and is emerging as an important component of several clinical fields. © 2016 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 6:1345-1385, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Frank L Powell
- Physiology Division, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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20
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Satriotomo I, Nichols NL, Dale EA, Emery AT, Dahlberg JM, Mitchell GS. Repetitive acute intermittent hypoxia increases growth/neurotrophic factor expression in non-respiratory motor neurons. Neuroscience 2016; 322:479-88. [PMID: 26944605 PMCID: PMC5203934 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.02.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Repetitive acute intermittent hypoxia (rAIH) increases growth/trophic factor expression in respiratory motor neurons, thereby eliciting spinal respiratory motor plasticity and/or neuroprotection. Here we demonstrate that rAIH effects are not unique to respiratory motor neurons, but are also expressed in non-respiratory, spinal alpha motor neurons and upper motor neurons of the motor cortex. In specific, we used immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence to assess growth/trophic factor protein expression in spinal sections from rats exposed to AIH three times per week for 10weeks (3×wAIH). 3×wAIH increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), its high-affinity receptor, tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), and phosphorylated TrkB (pTrkB) immunoreactivity in putative alpha motor neurons of spinal cervical 7 (C7) and lumbar 3 (L3) segments, as well as in upper motor neurons of the primary motor cortex (M1). 3×wAIH also increased immunoreactivity of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), the high-affinity VEGFA receptor (VEGFR-2) and an important VEGF gene regulator, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α). Thus, rAIH effects on growth/trophic factors are characteristic of non-respiratory as well as respiratory motor neurons. rAIH may be a useful tool in the treatment of disorders causing paralysis, such as spinal injury and motor neuron disease, as a pretreatment to enhance motor neuron survival during disease, or as preconditioning for cell-transplant therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Satriotomo
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
| | - N L Nichols
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - E A Dale
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - A T Emery
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - J M Dahlberg
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - G S Mitchell
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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21
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Kim SJ, Kim YJ, Kakall Z, Farnham MMJ, Pilowsky PM. Intermittent hypoxia-induced cardiorespiratory long-term facilitation: A new role for microglia. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2016; 226:30-8. [PMID: 27015670 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2016.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Intermittent hypoxia induces plasticity in neural networks controlling breathing and cardiovascular function. Studies demonstrate that mechanisms causing cardiorespiratory plasticity rely on intracellular signalling pathways that are activated by specific neurotransmitters. Peptides such as serotonin, PACAP and orexin are well-known for their physiological significance in regulating the cardiorespiratory system. Their receptor counterparts are present in cardiorespiratory centres of the brainstem medulla and spinal cord. Microglial cells are also important players in inducing plasticity. The phenotype and function of microglial cells can change based on the physiological state of the central nervous system. Here, we propose that in the autonomic nuclei of the ventral brainstem the relationship between neurotransmitters and neurokines, neurons and microglia determines the overall neural function of the central cardiorespiratory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Jae Kim
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia; The Heart Research Institute, 7 Eliza Street, Newtown, Sydney 2042, Australia
| | - Yeon Jae Kim
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Zohra Kakall
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia; The Heart Research Institute, 7 Eliza Street, Newtown, Sydney 2042, Australia
| | - Melissa M J Farnham
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia; The Heart Research Institute, 7 Eliza Street, Newtown, Sydney 2042, Australia
| | - Paul M Pilowsky
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia; The Heart Research Institute, 7 Eliza Street, Newtown, Sydney 2042, Australia.
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22
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Valic M, Pecotic R, Pavlinac Dodig I, Valic Z, Stipica I, Dogas Z. Intermittent hypercapnia-induced phrenic long-term depression is revealed after serotonin receptor blockade with methysergide in anaesthetized rats. Exp Physiol 2015; 101:319-31. [DOI: 10.1113/ep085161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maja Valic
- Department of Neuroscience; University of Split School of Medicine; Split Croatia
| | - Renata Pecotic
- Department of Neuroscience; University of Split School of Medicine; Split Croatia
| | - Ivana Pavlinac Dodig
- Department of Neuroscience; University of Split School of Medicine; Split Croatia
| | - Zoran Valic
- Department of Physiology; University of Split School of Medicine; Split Croatia
| | - Ivona Stipica
- Department of Neuroscience; University of Split School of Medicine; Split Croatia
| | - Zoran Dogas
- Department of Neuroscience; University of Split School of Medicine; Split Croatia
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23
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Fields DP, Mitchell GS. Spinal metaplasticity in respiratory motor control. Front Neural Circuits 2015; 9:2. [PMID: 25717292 PMCID: PMC4324138 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2015.00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A hallmark feature of the neural system controlling breathing is its ability to exhibit plasticity. Less appreciated is the ability to exhibit metaplasticity, a change in the capacity to express plasticity (i.e., “plastic plasticity”). Recent advances in our understanding of cellular mechanisms giving rise to respiratory motor plasticity lay the groundwork for (ongoing) investigations of metaplasticity. This detailed understanding of respiratory metaplasticity will be essential as we harness metaplasticity to restore breathing capacity in clinical disorders that compromise breathing, such as cervical spinal injury, motor neuron disease and other neuromuscular diseases. In this brief review, we discuss key examples of metaplasticity in respiratory motor control, and our current understanding of mechanisms giving rise to spinal plasticity and metaplasticity in phrenic motor output; particularly after pre-conditioning with intermittent hypoxia. Progress in this area has led to the realization that similar mechanisms are operative in other spinal motor networks, including those governing limb movement. Further, these mechanisms can be harnessed to restore respiratory and non-respiratory motor function after spinal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daryl P Fields
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI, USA
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24
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Nichols NL, Johnson RA, Satriotomo I, Mitchell GS. Neither serotonin nor adenosine-dependent mechanisms preserve ventilatory capacity in ALS rats. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2014; 197:19-28. [PMID: 24681328 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2014.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/15/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In rats over-expressing SOD1G93A, ventilation is preserved despite significant loss of respiratory motor neurons. Thus, unknown forms of compensatory respiratory plasticity may offset respiratory motor neuron cell death. Although mechanisms of such compensation are unknown, other models of respiratory motor plasticity may provide a conceptual guide. Multiple cellular mechanisms give rise to phrenic motor facilitation; one mechanism requires spinal serotonin receptor and NADPH oxidase activity whereas another requires spinal adenosine receptor activation. Here, we studied whether these mechanisms contribute to compensatory respiratory plasticity in SOD1G93A rats. Using plethysmography, we assessed ventilation in end-stage SOD1G93A rats after: (1) serotonin depletion with parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA), (2) serotonin (methysergide) and A2A (MSX-3) receptor inhibition, (3) NADPH oxidase inhibition (apocynin), and (4) combined treatments. The ability to increase ventilation was not decreased by individual or combined treatments; thus, these mechanisms do not maintain breathing capacity at end-stage motor neuron disease. Possible mechanisms giving rise to enhanced breathing capacity with combined treatment in end-stage SOD1G93A rats are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- N L Nichols
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - R A Johnson
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - I Satriotomo
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - G S Mitchell
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States.
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