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Chang WS, Liang WK, Li DH, Muggleton NG, Balachandran P, Huang NE, Juan CH. The association between working memory precision and the nonlinear dynamics of frontal and parieto-occipital EEG activity. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14252. [PMID: 37653059 PMCID: PMC10471634 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41358-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrophysiological working memory (WM) research shows brain areas communicate via macroscopic oscillations across frequency bands, generating nonlinear amplitude modulation (AM) in the signal. Traditionally, AM is expressed as the coupling strength between the signal and a prespecified modulator at a lower frequency. Therefore, the idea of AM and coupling cannot be studied separately. In this study, 33 participants completed a color recall task while their brain activity was recorded through EEG. The AM of the EEG data was extracted using the Holo-Hilbert spectral analysis (HHSA), an adaptive method based on the Hilbert-Huang transforms. The results showed that WM load modulated parieto-occipital alpha/beta power suppression. Furthermore, individuals with higher frontal theta power and lower parieto-occipital alpha/beta power exhibited superior WM precision. In addition, the AM of parieto-occipital alpha/beta power predicted WM precision after presenting a target-defining probe array. The phase-amplitude coupling (PAC) between the frontal theta phase and parieto-occipital alpha/beta AM increased with WM load while processing incoming stimuli, but the PAC itself did not predict the subsequent recall performance. These results suggest frontal and parieto-occipital regions communicate through theta-alpha/beta PAC. However, the overall recall precision depends on the alpha/beta AM following the onset of the retro cue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Sheng Chang
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Sciences and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Kuang Liang
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Sciences and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
- Cognitive Intelligence and Precision Healthcare Center, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Dong-Han Li
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Sciences and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
- Cognitive Intelligence and Precision Healthcare Center, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Neil G Muggleton
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Sciences and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
- Cognitive Intelligence and Precision Healthcare Center, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
| | - Prasad Balachandran
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Sciences and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
- Taiwan International Graduate Program in Interdisciplinary Neuroscience, National Cheng Kung University and Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Norden E Huang
- Cognitive Intelligence and Precision Healthcare Center, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
- Data Analysis and Application Laboratory, The First Institute of Oceanography, Qingdao, China
| | - Chi-Hung Juan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health Sciences and Technology, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.
- Cognitive Intelligence and Precision Healthcare Center, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.
- Department of Psychology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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Yuan X, Li D, Hu Y, Qi M, Kong Y, Zhao C, Huang J, Song Y. Neural and behavioral evidence supporting the relationship between habitual exercise and working memory precision in healthy young adults. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1146465. [PMID: 37090810 PMCID: PMC10116001 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1146465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionWorking memory (WM) is a well-known fundamental ability related to various high-level cognitive functions, such as executive functioning, decision-making, and problem-solving. Although previous studies have posited that chronic exercise may improve cognitive functions, its underlying neural mechanisms and whether habitual exercise is associated with individual WM ability remain unclear.MethodsIn the current study, 36 participants reported their habitual physical activity through the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). In addition to assessments of intelligence quotient (IQ), WM storage capacity (K score), and visuomotor coordination capacity, electroencephalogram (EEG) signals were recorded while the participants performed a WM precision task fusing conventional visual and motor retrospective cue (retro-cue) WM tasks.ResultsWe found that greater amounts of and higher frequencies of vigorous-intensity exercise were highly correlated with smaller recall errors in the WM precision task. Contralateral delay activity (CDA), a well-known WM-related event-related potential (ERP) component evoked by the valid retro-cue, predicted individual behavioral recall error. Participants who met the medium or high level of IPAQ criteria (the regular exercise group) showed smaller behavioral recall error and larger CDA than participants who did not meet the criteria (the irregular exercise group). The two groups did not differ in other assessments, such as IQ, WM storage capacity, and visuomotor coordination ability.DiscussionHabitual exercise was specifically correlated with individual differences in WM precision, rather than IQ, WM storage capacity, and visuomotor coordination ability, suggesting potential mechanisms of how modulations of chronic exercise improve cognition through visual and/or motor WM precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuye Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Dongwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yiqing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Mengdi Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuanjun Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Chenguang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Center for Cognition and Neuroergonomics, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China
- School of Systems Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Huang
- Center for Cognition and Neuroergonomics, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China
- *Correspondence: Jing Huang,
| | - Yan Song
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
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Masina F, Montemurro S, Marino M, Manzo N, Pellegrino G, Arcara G. State-dependent tDCS modulation of the somatomotor network: A MEG study. Clin Neurophysiol 2022; 142:133-142. [PMID: 36037749 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2022.07.508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive technique widely used to investigate brain excitability and activity. However, the variability in both brain and behavioral responses to tDCS limits its application for clinical purposes. This study aims to shed light on state-dependency, a phenomenon that contributes to the variability of tDCS. METHODS To this aim, we investigated changes in spectral activity and functional connectivity in somatomotor regions after Real and Sham tDCS using generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs), which allowed us to investigate how modulation depends on the initial state of the brain. RESULTS Results showed that changes in spectral activity, but not connectivity, in the somatomotor regions depend on the initial state of the brain, confirming state-dependent effects. Specifically, we found a non-linear interaction between stimulation conditions (Real vs Sham) and initial state: a reduction of alpha and beta power was observed only in participants that had higher alpha and beta power before Real tDCS. CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the importance of considering state-dependency to tDCS and shows how it can be taken into account with appropriate statistical models. SIGNIFICANCE Our findings bear insight into tDCS mechanisms, potentially leading to discriminate between tDCS responders and non-responders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marco Marino
- IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy; Department of Movement Sciences, Research Center for Motor Control and Neuroplasticity, KU Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Nicoletta Manzo
- IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy; Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
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Xie Y, Li Y, Duan H, Xu X, Zhang W, Fang P. Theta Oscillations and Source Connectivity During Complex Audiovisual Object Encoding in Working Memory. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:614950. [PMID: 33762914 PMCID: PMC7982740 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.614950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Working memory is a limited capacity memory system that involves the short-term storage and processing of information. Neuroscientific studies of working memory have mostly focused on the essential roles of neural oscillations during item encoding from single sensory modalities (e.g., visual and auditory). However, the characteristics of neural oscillations during multisensory encoding in working memory are rarely studied. Our study investigated the oscillation characteristics of neural signals in scalp electrodes and mapped functional brain connectivity while participants encoded complex audiovisual objects in a working memory task. Experimental results showed that theta oscillations (4–8 Hz) were prominent and topographically distributed across multiple cortical regions, including prefrontal (e.g., superior frontal gyrus), parietal (e.g., precuneus), temporal (e.g., inferior temporal gyrus), and occipital (e.g., cuneus) cortices. Furthermore, neural connectivity at the theta oscillation frequency was significant in these cortical regions during audiovisual object encoding compared with single modality object encoding. These results suggest that local oscillations and interregional connectivity via theta activity play an important role during audiovisual object encoding and may contribute to the formation of working memory traces from multisensory items.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanjun Xie
- School of Education, Xin Yang College, Xinyang, China.,Department of Radiology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yanyan Li
- School of Education, Xin Yang College, Xinyang, China
| | - Haidan Duan
- School of Education, Xin Yang College, Xinyang, China
| | - Xiliang Xu
- School of Education, Xin Yang College, Xinyang, China
| | - Wenmo Zhang
- Department of Fundamental, Army Logistical University, Chongqing, China.,Department of Social Medicine and Health and Management, College of Military Preventive Medicine, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Peng Fang
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
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Yokosawa K, Kimura K, Takase R, Murakami Y, Boasen J. Functional decline of the precuneus associated with mild cognitive impairment: Magnetoencephalographic observations. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0239577. [PMID: 32986743 PMCID: PMC7521706 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is a border or precursor state of dementia. To optimize implemented interventions for MCI, it is essential to clarify the underlying neural mechanisms. However, knowledge regarding the brain regions responsible for MCI is still limited. Here, we implemented the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) test, a screening tool for MCI, in 20 healthy elderly participants (mean age, 67.5 years), and then recorded magnetoencephalograms (MEG) while they performed a visual sequential memory task. In the task, each participant memorized the four possible directions of seven sequentially presented arrow images. Recall accuracy for beginning items of the memory sequence was significantly positively related with MoCA score. Meanwhile, MEG revealed stronger alpha-band (8-13 Hz) rhythm desynchronization bilaterally in the precuneus (PCu) for higher MoCA (normal) participants. Most importantly, this PCu desynchronization response weakened in correspondence with lower MoCA score during the beginning of sequential memory encoding, a time period that should rely on working memory and be affected by declined cognitive function. Our results suggest that deactivation of the PCu is associated with early MCI, and corroborate pathophysiological findings based on post-mortem tissue which have implicated hypoperfusion of the PCu in early stages of Alzheimer disease. Our results indicate the possibility that cognitive decline can be detected early and non-invasively by monitoring PCu activity with electrophysiological methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Yokosawa
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Keisuke Kimura
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Ryoken Takase
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Yui Murakami
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Human Science, Hokkaido Bunkyo University, Eniwa, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Jared Boasen
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
- Tech3Lab, HEC Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
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Solís-Ortiz S, González-Pérez EG. Slow electroencephalographic oscillations and behavioral measures as predictors of high executive processing in early postmenopausal females: A discriminant analysis approach. Brain Cogn 2020; 145:105613. [PMID: 32911233 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Decline in cognitive function is frequent in early postmenopause. There are postmenopausal females who show high performance while others display low performance in executive function, modulated by the prefrontal cortex. These differences have led to confusing and inconclusive results, which have not been explained entirely by the decline in estrogens, which affect the prefrontal cortex functions. An analysis of brain function and the application of a discriminant analysis can help to clarify the deficits in executive function shown by some postmenopausal females. The objective was to examine electroencephalographic recording during the performance of an executive function test in early postmenopausal females, ten with a high level of performance and ten with a low level of performance. Absolute power of delta, theta, alpha1, alpha2, beta1 and beta2 and the numbers of completed categories, trials, perseverative errors and overall errors were submitted to stepwise discriminant analysis to identify predictor variables. Four predictors emerged as significant of group membership based on cognitive performance, with the high-performance group characterized by more completed categories, more delta power, less theta power and more alpha1 power. These findings suggest that postmenopausal females classified in the high-performance group displayed appropriate temporary activation in slow oscillations during executive processing.
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Ferber S, Ruppel J, Danckert J. Visual working memory deficits following right brain damage. Brain Cogn 2020; 142:105566. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Wang H, Hua C, Wang Q, Fu Q, Fetlework T. Training state and performance evaluation of working memory based on task-related EEG. Biomed Signal Process Control 2019; 51:296-308. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Yokosawa K, Takase R, Chitose R, Kimura K. Multiple Brain Activities During Sequential Memory Encoding - MEG Study Of Modulation Of Alpha-Band Rhythm. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc 2018; 2018:5-8. [PMID: 30440327 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2018.8512221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
It is known that alpha-band rhythm during memory maintenance is enhanced by increasing memory load. This enhancement is generally thought to be caused by active inhibition of task-irrelevant visual inputs. During sequential memory processing, we previously found that alpha-band activity increases from beginning to midterm during memory encoding, and conversely decreases from midterm to ending. In the present study, we conducted two experiments to determine the spatial and functional role of alpha-band rhythm during sequential memory processing. The first experiment showed that alpha-band rhythm increased in the occipital brain region, suggesting that active inhibition of task-irrelevant visual inputs continues from midterm to ending of memory encoding. The second experiment, in which subjects could not anticipate the ending of the sequential presentation of memory items, demonstrated that alpha-band rhythm is suppressed in correspondence with preparation for memory recall. These results indicate that alpha-band rhythm is simultaneously modulated by multiple brain processes in sequential memory encoding.
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Fallon SJ, Mattiesing RM, Muhammed K, Manohar S, Husain M. Fractionating the Neurocognitive Mechanisms Underlying Working Memory: Independent Effects of Dopamine and Parkinson's Disease. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:5727-5738. [PMID: 29040416 PMCID: PMC5939219 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhx242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Deficits in working memory (WM) in Parkinson’s disease (PD) are often considered to be secondary to dopaminergic depletion. However, the neurocognitive mechanisms by which dopamine causes these deficits remain highly contested, and PD is now also known to be associated with nondopaminergic pathology. Here, we examined how PD and dopaminergic medication modulate three components of WM: maintenance over time, updating contents with new information and making memories distracter-resistant. Compared with controls, patients were disproportionately impaired when retaining information for longer durations. By applying a probabilistic model, we were able to reveal that the source of this error was selectively due to precision of memory representations degrading over time. By contrast, replenishing dopamine levels in PD improved executive control over both the ability to ignore and update, but did not affect maintenance of information across time. This was due to a decrease in guess responses, consistent with the view that dopamine serves to prevent WM representations being corrupted by irrelevant information, but has no impact on information decay. Cumulatively, these results reveal a dissociation in the neural mechanisms underlying poor WM: whereas dopamine reduces interference, nondopaminergic systems in PD appear to modulate processes that prevent information decaying more quickly over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean James Fallon
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, New Radcliffe House, Walton Street, Oxford, OX2 6AG, UK
| | | | - Kinan Muhammed
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, New Radcliffe House, Walton Street, Oxford, OX2 6AG, UK.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Sanjay Manohar
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, New Radcliffe House, Walton Street, Oxford, OX2 6AG, UK.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Masud Husain
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, New Radcliffe House, Walton Street, Oxford, OX2 6AG, UK.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
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van Ede F. Mnemonic and attentional roles for states of attenuated alpha oscillations in perceptual working memory: a review. Eur J Neurosci 2017; 48:2509-2515. [PMID: 29068095 PMCID: PMC6220786 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Alpha oscillations are often reported to be amplified during working memory (WM) retention, serving to disengage sensory areas to protect internal representations from external interference. At the same time, contemporary views of WM postulate that sensory areas may often also be recruited for retention. I here review recent evidence that during such 'perceptual' WM, alpha oscillations in mnemonically relevant sensory areas are not amplified but attenuated instead. I will argue that such attenuated alpha states serve a mnemonic role and, further, that larger attenuation may support item-specific attentional prioritisation within perceptual WM. In critically evaluating this role, I also consider (and argue against) four alternatives to a strictly mnemonic account of the available data that may also prove useful to consider in future research. Finally, I highlight key implications of these data for the study of WM and for our understanding of the functional roles of states of attenuated alpha oscillations in cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freek van Ede
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Galeano Weber EM, Hahn T, Hilger K, Fiebach CJ. Distributed patterns of occipito-parietal functional connectivity predict the precision of visual working memory. Neuroimage 2017; 146:404-418. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Abstract
We used a continuous performance measure VSTM in children aged between 7 and 12. This was combined with a probabilistic mixture model. Older children were more likely to remember the target, but were no more precise. Mixture model parameters corresponded to differences in standardized WM and STM.
Our ability to retain visuospatial information over brief periods of time is severely limited and develops gradually. In childhood, visuospatial short-term and working memory are typically indexed using span-based measures. However, whilst these standardized measures have been successful in characterizing developmental and individual differences, each individual trial only provides a binary measure of a child’s performance—they are either correct or incorrect. Here we used a novel continuous report paradigm, in combination with probabilistic modeling, to explore developmental and individual differences in how likely children were to recall memoranda, and how precisely they could report them. Taking this approach revealed a number of novel findings: (i) a concurrent processing demand negatively impacted upon both of these parameters, increasing the guessing rate and making children less precise; (ii) older children (aged 10–12, N = 20) were significantly less likely to guess, but when they did remember the target were no more precise in reporting it than younger children (aged 7–9, N = 20); (iii) children’s performance on standardized short-term and working memory tasks was significantly associated with both the guessing likelihood, and the precision of target responding, on the continuous report task. In short, we show that continuous report paradigms can offer interesting insight into processes that underlie developmental and individual differences in visuospatial memory in childhood.
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