Earthworms dilong: ancient, inexpensive, noncontroversial models may help clarify approaches to integrated medicine emphasizing neuroimmune systems

Leveraging Therapeutic Proteins and Peptides from Lumbricus Earthworms: Targeting SOCS2 E3 Ligase for Cardiovascular Therapy through Molecular Dynamics Simulations

Suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, regulates the JAK/STAT signaling pathway, essential for cytokine signaling and immune responses. Its dysregulation contributes to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) by promoting abnormal cell growth, inflammation, and resistance to cell death. This study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the interactions between Lumbricus-derived proteins and peptides and SOCS2, with a focus on identifying potential therapeutic candidates for CVDs. Utilizing a multifaceted approach, advanced computational methodologies, including 3D structure modeling, protein-protein docking, 100 ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and MM/PBSA calculations, were employed to assess the binding affinities and functional implications of Lumbricus-derived proteins on SOCS2 activity. The findings revealed that certain proteins, such as Lumbricin, Chemoattractive glycoprotein ES20, and Lumbrokinase-7T1, exhibited similar activities to standard antagonists in modulating SOCS2 activity. Furthermore, MM/PBSA calculations were employed to assess the binding free energies of these proteins with SOCS2. Specifically, Lumbricin exhibited an average ΔGbinding of -59.25 kcal/mol, Chemoattractive glycoprotein ES20 showed -55.02 kcal/mol, and Lumbrokinase-7T1 displayed -69.28 kcal/mol. These values suggest strong binding affinities between these proteins and SOCS2, reinforcing their potential therapeutic efficacy in cardiovascular diseases. Further in vitro and animal studies are recommended to validate these findings and explore broader applications of Lumbricus-derived proteins.

Autophagy of Candida albicans cells after the action of earthworm Venetin-1 nanoparticle with protease inhibitor activity

The present studies show the effect of the Venetin-1 protein-polysaccharide complex obtained from the coelomic fluid of the earthworm Dendrobaena veneta on Candida albicans cells. They are a continuation of research on the mechanisms of action, cellular targets, and modes of cell death. After the action of Venetin-1, a reduced survival rate of the yeast cells was noted. The cells were observed to be enlarged compared to the controls and deformed. In addition, an increase in the number of cells with clearly enlarged vacuoles was noted. The detected autophagy process was confirmed using differential interference contrast, fluorescence microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Autophagic vesicles were best visible after incubation of fungus cells with the Venetin-1 complex at a concentration of 50 and 100 µg mL-1. The changes in the vacuoles were accompanied by changes in the size of mitochondria, which is probably related to the previously documented oxidative stress. The aggregation properties of Venetin-1 were characterized. Based on the results of the zeta potential at the Venetin-1/KCl interface, the pHiep = 4 point was determined, i.e. the zeta potential becomes positive above pH = 4 and is negative below this value, which may affect the electrostatic interactions with other particles surrounding Venetin-1.

Four new terrestrial earthworm species from the northeast Thailand (Oligochaeta, Megascolecidae)

Earthworm specimens collected from Sakon Nakhon and Nakhon Phanom, northeast Thailand, were found to contain four new species in the family Megascolecidae, with one species in the genus Metaphire Sims & Easton, 1972, and the other three in the genus Amynthas Kinberg, 1867. These are herein named Metaphiresongkhramensis Chanabun & Panha, sp. nov. in the sexthecal houlleti species group, and Amynthassakonnakhonensis Chanabun & Panha, sp. nov., A.auriculus Chanabun & Panha, sp. nov., and A.bantanensis Chanabun & Panha, sp. nov. in the sexthecal aelianus species group. Metaphiresongkhramensis Chanabun & Panha, sp. nov. occurs in dark clay soil of the oxbow lake of the river, Amynthassakonnakhonensis Chanabun & Panha, sp. nov. occurs in wetland area, A.auriculus Chanabun & Panha, sp. nov. occurs in dark sandy loam habitats of mixed deciduous forest while the following species, A.bantanensis Chanabun & Panha, sp. nov. occurs in sandy loam habitats of paddy fields. Descriptions of the new species, including illustrations of the external and internal morphological characteristics, are provided.

Proteomic response of A549 lung cancer cell line to protein-polysaccharide complex Venetin-1 isolated from earthworm coelomic fluid

Earthworms' celomic fluid has long attracted scientists' interest due to their toxic properties. It has been shown that the elimination of coelomic fluid cytotoxicity to normal human cells was crucial for the generation of the non-toxic Venetin-1 protein-polysaccharide complex, which exhibits selective activity against Candida albicans cells as well as A549 non-small cell lung cancer cells. To find the molecular mechanisms behind the anti-cancer properties of the preparation, this research investigated the proteome response of A549 cells to the presence of Venetin-1. The sequential window acquisition of all theoretical mass spectra (SWATH-MS) methodology was used for the analysis, which allows for a relative quantitative analysis to be carried out without radiolabelling. The results showed that the formulation did not induce significant proteome responses in normal BEAS-2B cells. In the case of the tumour line, 31 proteins were up regulated, and 18 proteins down regulated. Proteins with increased expression in neoplastic cells are mainly associated with the mitochondrion, membrane transport and the endoplasmic reticulum. In the case of altered proteins, Venetin-1 interferes with proteins that stabilise the structures, i.e., keratin, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis and metabolic processes.

Improving earthworm quality and complex metal removal from water by adding aquatic plant residues to cattle manure

Vermicomposting is an economical and environmentally friendly process. However, related knowledge of vermicomposting aquatic plant residues (APRs), earthworm quality, and mechanisms for metal removal from water is still lacking. Nelumbo and Oenanthe javanica residues and their mixture were treated with Eisenia foetida and cattle manure for 45 days. Compared with the control comprising only cattle manure, addition of the APR mixture improved earthworm quality, mainly for low crude ash, high alkaloid compounds and different fat compositions in the Nelumbo residue and the balanced protein proportion of the APR mixture. All the vermicompost especial O. javanica residue added (VO) played efficient roles in removing metals from water initially containing 2.0 mg Cu L^-1 and 8.0 mg Zn L^-1. There were higher removal efficiencies (E_rs) at the dosage of 4 g L^-1 with a small microbial contribution. VO significantly increased E_rs, which could be from the decrease of phylum Firmicutes (especial Bacteroides) abundance, stronger CH₂, C = O, and CH, the addition of COOH groups, and higher organic matter and total phosphorus contents. The combination of VO and Hippuris vulgaris was optimized as an ecological and economical method for treating complex-metal polluted water. Moreover, our study widened the route for APR reuse.

Novel Venetin-1 nanoparticle from earthworm coelomic fluid as a promising agent for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

The present research shows the antitumor activity of a protein-polysaccharide complex Venetin-1 obtained from the coelomic fluid of Dendrobaena veneta earthworms against A549 cancer cells. The investigations are a continuation of experiments on the antitumor activity of coelomic fluid obtained from this species. The Venetin-1 nanoparticle was obtained after thermal treatment of the coelomic fluid, separation from coelomocytes, filtration, and lyophilization. The preparation showed a selective effect on cancer cells, whereas normal cells were unaffected. Venetin-1 was effective against the lung cancer cells at doses of 31.3 and 62.5 µg/ml, and the results were imaged using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The cells died mainly via the apoptosis pathway. Necrotic cells appeared sporadically in the microscopic view. SEM imaging revealed complete destruction of the A549 cells after the incubation with Venetin-1. The atomic force microscopy (AFM) analyses showed changes in the topography, peak force error images, and Young's modulus (elasticity) of the A549 cells after the incubation with Venetin-1. The transmission electron cryomicroscopy (Cryo-TEM) analysis indicated a polymeric nature of the analyzed preparation. The samples of Venetin-1 showed a very homogeneous size profile with the microparticle size of approximately 58.23 nm. A significant decrease in Venetin-1 binding to sphingomyelin was observed. Venetin-1 lost its pore-forming activity or deactivation of the pore-forming activity occurred. This confirms the absence of hemolytic capacity of Venetin-1 towards red blood cells. The conducted analyses show the suitability of the obtained complex for biomedical research. The next step will consist in analyses of the effect of Venetin-1 on the immune system in mice.

The assessment of the protective impact of spidroin extract against UV-A radiation damage by using earthworms (Aporrectodea caliginosa) as a robust human skin model via macroscopic and histological observations

Numerous studies have confirmed the damage caused by excessive exposure to ultraviolet-A rays. Malignant melanoma and skin cancer are two of the most serious health consequences. Thus, the UV-A protectant is intended to protect the skin, especially the two primary layers of skin (epidermis that represents the interface between the body and its surroundings and dermis). Spider silk is the most powerful natural fibre due to its regeneration, biocompatibility, antimicrobial, wound healing, antiseptic, and blood clotting properties. This work targeted to determine the protective effect of spidroin extract against UV-A radiation damage. Earthworms Aporrectodea caliginosa were collected from Assiut University's farm. Each set of ten earthworms was separated into six groups and placed in a plastic container. Webs of spiders collected from trees and old houses. Spidroin was extracted and utilised in this work to determine the potential effects of topical application on UV-A protection. The experiment is divided into two sections: (1) UV-A exposure and (2) the use of spidroin extract to protect the earthworms from ultraviolet radiation. Two control groups (1،2) of worms were not received UV-A exposure, and four groups (3,4,5,6) were exposed to UVR-A. In contrast, groups (5,6) were received spidroin extract before exposure to UV-A. Each group from the groups (3,4,5,6) was exposed for three consecutive days (¼ hour/day, ½ hour/day, and 1 h/day), using a UV-Lamp with a wavelength of 366 nm. The histopathological changes revealed that after 1⁄4 h of UV exposure, the cuticle was swollen with a slightly detached epithelium. The cuticle was down after 1⁄2 h of exposure, and the epidermis was totally damaged and necrosed. After 1 h, the exposure showed destruction of the epidermis in the circular muscle with a loss of muscle filament integrity, varying size, and altered nucleus form, along with mild disintegration of longitudinal muscle. Spidroin extract is critical for earthworm protection against UV-A radiation damage and able to regeneration. For the first time, morphological and histological analysis was established to detect the Spidroin extract evaluated for topical application on earthworms. Earthworms can be considered as a robust human skin model prior to UV-A exposure. It induces a complete protective effect against UV-A radiation damage in earthworms.

Investigation of Antiparasitic Effects of Eisenia fetida Extract (Annelida, Lumbricidae) Against Toxoplasma gondii: In Vitro Study

Background:

Toxoplasmosis which is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, is a widespread parasitic disease that affects approximately one-third of the world's population. Due to the significant side effects of anti-Toxoplasma drugs, it is necessary to acquire new drugs with low toxicity, high activity, cheaper and more effective.

Objective:

Earthworm has long been used as a therapeutic source of medicine in China and other parts of the Far East. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate of antiparasitic effects of Eisenia fetida extract against T. gondii in the Vero cell line.

Materials and Methods:

The effects of the extract on the parasite, Vero cell, and the parasitized cells were estimated by MTT assay in vitro. Apoptosis was also measured by flow cytometer in three groups of extract-treated parasites, extract-treated Vero cells, and extract-treated parasitic Vero cells, respectively.

Results:

The inhibitory effect of E. fetida extract and sulfadiazine was more than 85% and 65% on the parasite, respectively. Intracellular multiplication of the parasite in Vero cells during the 3 hours test showed a significant decrease compared to the 1 hour test (p<0.05). Flow cytometric analysis showed that with increasing concentration of E. fetida, apoptosis increased significantly (p<0.05).

Conclusion:

The results showed that E. fetida extract in vitro could have a significant antiparasitic effect against T. gondii.

Therapeutic Values of Earthworm Species Extract from Azad Kashmir as Anticoagulant, Antibacterial, and Antioxidant Agents

Aims

Current research aimed to explore the therapeutic values of different earthworms as antibacterial, anticoagulant, and antioxidant agents.

Methods

Ten different earthworms, i.e., Amynthas corticis, Amynthas gracilis, Pheretima posthuma, Eisenia fetida, Aporrectodea rosea, Allolobophora chlorotica, Aporrectodea trapezoides, Polypheretima elongata, Aporrectodea caliginosa, and Pheretima hawayana, were collected and screened for biological activities. Antibacterial effect analysis of earthworm species was done against fourteen bacterial pathogens, i.e., Escherichia coli, Serratia marcescens, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1), Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, Enterobacter amnigenus, Serratia odorifera, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (2), Staphylococcus warneri, and Lactobacillus curvatus, via agar well diffusion, crystal violet, MTT, agar disc diffusion, and direct bioautography assays. Antioxidant potential was evaluated through ABTS and DPPH assays. Lipolytic, proteolytic, and amylolytic assays were done for lipase, protease, and amylase enzymes confirmation. In vitro anticoagulant effects were examined in the blood samples by measuring prothrombin time.

Results

Results revealed that all earthworm extracts showed the inhibition of all tested bacterial pathogens except P. aeruginosa (1), P. aeruginosa (2), S. warneri, and L. curvatus. The maximum zone of inhibition of E. coli was recorded as 14.66 ± 0.57 mm by A. corticis, 25.0 ± 0.0 mm by P. posthuma, 20.0 ± 0.0 mm by E. fetida, and 20.0 ± 0.0 mm by A. trapezoid. Cell proliferation, biofilm inhibition, the synergistic effect of extracts along with antibiotics, and direct bioautography supported the results of agar well diffusion assay. Similarly, P. hawayana, A. corticis, A. caliginosa, and A. trapezoids increase the prothrombin time more efficiently compared to other earthworms. A. corticis, A. gracilis, A. rosea, A. chlorotica, P. elongata, and A. trapezoides showed maximum DPPH scavenging potential effect.

Conclusions

The coelomic fluid of earthworms possessed several bioactive compounds/enzymes/antioxidants that play an important role in the bacterial inhibition and act as anticoagulant agents. Therefore, the development of new therapeutic drugs from invertebrates could be effective and potential for the prevention of the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Efficacy of the Jingxin Zhidong Formula for Tic Disorders: A Randomized, Double Blind, Double Dummy, Parallel Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

The Jingxin Zhidong formula (JXZDF), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been widely used to treat tic disorder (TD) in China. However, its efficacy has not yet been evaluated in a randomized controlled trial. We aimed to compare the effectiveness and safety of JXZDF and aripiprazole in patients with TD.

METHODS

In this randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, parallel controlled trial, 120 patients with TD, aged 6-16 years were randomly assigned to receive either JXZDF (n = 60, 17.6 g/day) or aripiprazole (n = 60, 10 mg/day) for 12 weeks. The primary outcome was measured using the Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTSS). Adverse events were assessed using the Treatment Emergent Symptom Scale.

RESULTS

JXZDF produced greater improvements than aripiprazole in the following YGTSS subscale scores at the endpoint: total tic scores (P = 0.004, 95% CI: 1.085-3.494) and total motor scores (P = 0.004, 95% CI: 0.313-1.739). The difference in rate between the groups was no significant (χ² = 0.702, degrees of freedom = 1, P = 0.402). The overall incidence of adverse events was significantly lower in the JXZDF group than in the aripiprazole group (0% vs 6.67%, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

JXZDF had a better safety profile than aripiprazole, and it was not inferior in terms of clinical efficacy. JXZDF warrants consideration as a potential treatment option for TD.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

CHiCTR, ChiCTR2000039601 (Registered November 2, 2020).

Metabolic, structural, and proteomic changes in Candida albicans cells induced by the protein-carbohydrate fraction of Dendrobaena veneta coelomic fluid

The isolated protein-polysaccharide fraction (AAF) from the coelomic fluid of Dendrobaena veneta earthworm shows effective activity against Candida albicans yeast. Fungal cells of the clinical strain after incubation with the active fraction were characterized by disturbed cell division and different morphological forms due to the inability to separate the cells from each other. Staining of the cells with acridine orange revealed a change in the pH of the AAF-treated cells. It was observed that, after the AAF treatment, the mitochondrial DNA migrated towards the nuclear DNA, whereupon both merged into a single nuclear structure, which preceded the apoptotic process. Cells with a large nucleus were imaged with the scanning electron cryomicroscopy (Cryo-SEM) technique, while enlarged mitochondria and the degeneration of cell structures were shown by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The loss of the correct cell shape and cell wall integrity was visualized by both the TEM and SEM techniques. Mass spectrometry and relative quantitative SWATH MS analysis were used to determine the reaction of the C. albicans proteome to the components of the AAF fraction. AAF was observed to influence the expression of mitochondrial and oxidative stress proteins. The oxidative stress in C. albicans cells caused by the action of AAF was demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy, proteomic methods, and XPS spectroscopy. The secondary structure of AAF proteins was characterized by Raman spectroscopy. Analysis of the elemental composition of AAF confirmed the homogeneity of the preparation. The observed action of AAF, which targets not only the cell wall but also the mitochondria, makes the preparation a potential antifungal drug killing the cells of the C. albicans pathogen through apoptosis.

Traditional knowledge of invertebrates used for medicine and magical-religious purposes by traditional healers and indigenous populations in the Plateau Department, Republic of Benin

BACKGROUND

Since ancient times, invertebrates have played an important role in the traditional medicine in many parts of the world. In south-eastern Benin, more specifically in the Plateau Department, invertebrates are widely used in folk medicine. However, studies on their therapeutic use has been neglected and their magical-religious purposes are poorly understood. The present study aims to document traditional knowledge related to the use of invertebrates for medicinal and magical-religious purposes by traditional healers and indigenous people of Plateau Department.

METHODS

An ethno-sociological survey was conducted with 145 informants (80 traditional healers, 12 merchants of medicinal animals and 53 households) belonging to six ethnic groups, in 20 villages located in Plateau of Benin. Data were collected through the participatory rural appraisal method involving individual interviews and direct observations with semi-structured questionnaires. The collected data regarding various medicinal and magical-religious uses of invertebrates were analysed through informant consensus factor (ICF), use value (UV) and, fidelity level (FL).

RESULTS

A total of 20 families and 38 species of invertebrates, distributed among 6 taxonomic categories, were found to be used to treat 50 different ailments. Insects occupied 64.7% of the total invertebrates listed. The African earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae K. and African giant snail Achatina achatina L. had the highest use values. The highest ICF value (1.0) was cited for diseases of the blood or blood-forming organs. A principal component analysis (PCA) revealed the influence of ethnic groups in the diseases treated with invertebrates. The highest FL (100%) was recorded for 12 invertebrate species treating various ailments. Most of invertebrate-based remedies were associated with plant species. The mode of administration was mainly oral and topical. Most of the invertebrate drugs were traditionally collected in nature or imported, mainly from Nigeria. In addition, 7 magical-religious practices are documented.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results reveal that several invertebrate species play an important role in healing practices and magical-religious rituals in the Plateau Department. We suggest further studies to confirm the presence of any bioactive compounds on invertebrate species use in traditional medicine. In addition, this study highlights the need for ecological investigations of these species, in order to develop strategies for their conservation and sustainable use.

In vitro cytotoxic and apoptotic induction effect of earthworm coelomic fluid of Eudrilus eugeniae, Eisenia foetida, and Perionyx excavatus on human oral squamous cell carcinoma-9 cell line

The current protocol of cancer management includes surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, these modalities have significant adverse effects and affect the quality of life. Further intensification of treatment is hindered as maximal toxicity levels are reached impeding improvement. Hence researchers are in the quest for adjunctive naturally available therapies that can alter tumor proliferation without causing significant adverse reactions. The present study aims to explore the cytotoxic potential of earthworm coelomic fluid (ECF) of Eudrilus eugeniae (EE), Eisenia foetida (EF), and Perionyx excavatus (PE) on oral cancer cell line SCC-9. The effect of ECF on cell cycle analysis and mechanism of cell death have also been investigated. All experiments reported in this paper were performed as 3 replicates per experiment. The results indicated that ECF of EE, EF and PE have potent variable cytotoxic effect on SCC-9 cells demonstrated through LDH, clonogenic and comet assay. An effective cell cycle arrest was observed at the G2M phase of cell cycle with apoptotic induction that was observed through an Annexin V - FITC/PI assay. ECF of EE was found to be superior in its cytotoxic action closely followed by ECF of PE. The present findings provide evidence for the first time that ECF of EE, EF and PE have potent cytotoxic effect on oral cancer cells in vitro. They significantly induce G2M cell cycle arrest and promote apoptosis in SCC-9 cell line. Gene expression studies have been planned to ascertain the pathways of cell death.

DNA Barcoding for the Identification and Authentication of Animal Species in Traditional Medicine

Animal-based traditional medicine not only plays a significant role in therapeutic practices worldwide but also provides a potential compound library for drug discovery. However, persistent hunting and illegal trade markedly threaten numerous medicinal animal species, and increasing demand further provokes the emergence of various adulterants. As the conventional methods are difficult and time-consuming to detect processed products or identify animal species with similar morphology, developing novel authentication methods for animal-based traditional medicine represents an urgent need. During the last decade, DNA barcoding offers an accurate and efficient strategy that can identify existing species and discover unknown species via analysis of sequence variation in a standardized region of DNA. Recent studies have shown that DNA barcoding as well as minibarcoding and metabarcoding is capable of identifying animal species and discriminating the authentics from the adulterants in various types of traditional medicines, including raw materials, processed products, and complex preparations. These techniques can also be used to detect the unlabelled and threatened animal species in traditional medicine. Here, we review the recent progress of DNA barcoding for the identification and authentication of animal species used in traditional medicine, which provides a reference for quality control and trade supervision of animal-based traditional medicine.

Anti-inflammatory activities of Guang-Pheretima extract in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophages

BACKGROUND

Guang-Pheretima, which is originated from Pheretima aspergillum, has been documented in academic Chinese herbal studies for nearly 2000 years for its prominent treating effects of various inflammatory diseases such as asthma, cough and fever. However, the anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism of Guang-Pheretima has been rarely reported. Hence, we investigated the inhibitory effect and the underlying mechanism of Guang-Pheretima aqueous extracts on inflammatory response in RAW 264.7 cells.

METHOD

RAW 264.7 macrophages were pretreated with various concentrations of Guang-Pheretima decoction (GPD) or protein-free Guang-Pheretima decoction (PF-GPD) and subsequently stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to trigger the inflammatory response. Productions of nitric oxide (NO) were determined by Griess reaction, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). The protein expressions and messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) amounts of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 were analyzed by Western Blot and Real-Time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively. Finally, the translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB was observed by Western Blot.

RESULTS

GPD of the experimental concentrations showed no anti-inflammatory activity. In contrast, PF-GPD at concentrations of 40-320 μg/mL significantly inhibited NF-κB activation and reduced the production of inflammatory mediators, such as NO, PGE2, TNF-α, as well as the related key synthases including iNOS and COX-2. Moreover, PF-GPD markedly suppressed the release of inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β and IL-6.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate the excellent anti-inflammatory properties of PF-GPD, and suggest that Guang-Pheretima may be used to treat and prevent certain inflammatory diseases.

Alzheimer Disease: Clues from traditional and complementary medicine

Despite modern medicine's incredible innovation and resulting accumulation of valuable knowledge, many of the world's most problematic diseases such as Alzheimer Disease (AD) still lack effective cures and treatments. Western medicine has revealed many genetic, cellular, and molecular processes that characterize AD such as protein aggregation and inflammation. As the need for novel and effective treatments increases, researchers have turned towards traditional medicine as a resource. Modern, evidence based research examining traditional and complementary remedies for AD has generated promising results within the last decade. Animal based products inhibiting cellular toxicity, anti-inflammatory nutraceuticals such as omega-3 fatty acids, and plant based compounds derived from herbal medicine demonstrate viability as neuroprotective treatments and possible application in developing pharmaceuticals. Analysis of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective phytochemicals used in various traditional medicines around the world reveal potential to ameliorate and prevent the devastating neurodegeneration observed in AD.

Transient Expression of Lumbrokinase (PI239) in Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Using a Geminivirus-Based Single Replicon System Dissolves Fibrin and Blood Clots

Lumbrokinases, a group of fibrinolytic enzymes extracted from earthworm, have been widely used to prevent and treat various cardiovascular diseases. They specifically target fibrin to effectively degrade thrombi without major side effects. Plant expression systems are becoming potential alternative expression platforms for producing pharmaceutical proteins. In this work, a lumbrokinase (PI239) was produced from a plant system. Both wild-type (WT) and plant codon-optimized (OP) PI239 gene sequences were synthesized and cloned into a geminivirus-based single-vector DNA replicon system. Both vectors were independently expressed in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaves transiently by agroinfiltration. Overexpressed PI239 resulted in sudden tissue necrosis 3 days after infiltration. Remaining proteins were purified through His-tag affinity chromatography and analyzed with SDS-PAGE and Western blot methods. Purified PI239 successfully degraded artificial fibrin with relative activity of 13,400 U/mg when compared with commercial lumbrokinase product. In vitro tests demonstrated that plant-derived PI239 dissolved human blood clots and that the plant expression system is capable of producing functional PI239.

Therapeutic arthropods and other, largely terrestrial, folk-medicinally important invertebrates: a comparative survey and review

Traditional healing methods involving hundreds of insect and other invertebrate species are reviewed. Some of the uses are based on the tenet of "similia similibus" (let likes be cured by likes), but not all non-conventional health promoting practices should be dismissed as superstition or wishful thinking, for they have stood the test of time. Two questions are addressed: how can totally different organ systems in a human possibly benefit from extracts, potions, powders, secretions, ashes, etc. of a single species and how can different target organs, e.g. bronchi, lungs, the urinary bladder, kidneys, etc. apparently respond to a range of taxonomically not even closely related species? Even though therapeutically used invertebrates are generally small, they nevertheless possess organs for specific functions, e.g. digestion, gas exchange, reproduction. They have a nervous system, endocrine glands, a heart and muscle tissue and they contain a multitude of different molecules like metabolites, enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, secretions, etc. that have come under increased scientific scrutiny for pharmacological properties. Bearing that in mind it seems likely that a single species prepared and used in different ways could have a multitude of uses. But how, for example, can there be remedies for breathing and other problems, involving earthworms, molluscs, termites, beetles, cockroaches, bugs, and dragonflies? Since invertebrates themselves can suffer from infections and cancers, common defence reactions are likely to have evolved in all invertebrates, which is why it would be far more surprising to find that each species had evolved its own unique disease fighting system. To obtain a more comprehensive picture, however, we still need information on folk medicinal uses of insects and other invertebrates from a wider range of regions and ethnic groups, but this task is hampered by western-based medicines becoming increasingly dominant and traditional healers being unable and sometimes even unwilling to transmit their knowledge to the younger generation. However, collecting and uncontrolled uses of therapeutic invertebrates can put undue pressure on certain highly sought after species and this is something that has to be borne in mind as well.

In vitro Antiproliferative Effect of Earthworm Coelomic Fluid of Eudrilus Eugeniae, Eisenia Foetida, and Perionyx Excavatus on Squamous Cell Carcinoma-9 Cell Line: A Pilot Study

Introduction

The earthworm coelomic fluid (ECF) has shown proven antiproliferative effect against breast, liver, gastrointestinal, and brain cancer, but it is least explored in oral cancer. The present in vitro study is an attempt to investigate the antiproliferative activity of ECF on oral cancer cell line squamous cell carcinoma (SCC)-9.

Materials and Methods

ECF was collected from the species Eudrilus eugeniae (EE), Eisenia foetida (EF), and Perionyx excavatus (PE) stored at -80°C. Percentage inhibition of ECF on squamous cell carcinoma-9 cells in vitro was recorded at 24 h. Protein estimation was done using Bradford protein assay validated by the biuret method. Cytotoxicity was tested at 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 μg/ml concentrations by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay in SCC-9 cells in vitro. GraphPad Prism 7.0 software was used to calculate the inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀). Chi-square test was used to analyze the difference between samples.

Results

The test samples EE, EF, and PE inhibited the growth of SCC-9 cells significantly in a dose-dependent manner, and the IC₅₀ values were found to be 4.6, 44.69, and 5.27 μg/ml, respectively. The antiproliferative effect was found to be variable among the three earthworm species with EE showing the most promising effect followed by PE and EF.

Conclusion

Establishing the antiproliferative effect of ECF on oral cancer cells could be an initial step toward drug development and future anticancer research. The preliminary investigation has shown that ECF has a promising antiproliferative effect on oral cancer cells in vitro.

SUMMARY

The present pilot study evaluated the in vitro antiproliferative effect of earthworm coelomic fluid (ECF) of Eudrilus eugeniae (EE), Eisenia foetida (EF), and Perionyx excavatus (PE) on squamous cell carcinoma-9 cell line. The ECF inhibitory activity was promising at inhibitory concentration values of 4.6, 44.69, and 5.27 μg/ml, respectively. Further studies pertaining to antiproliferative mechanism of EE, EF, and PE have been planned.Abbreviations Used: ECF: Earthworm coelomic fluid, EE: Eudrilus eugeniae, EF: Eisenia foetida, PE: Perionyx excavatus, MTT: 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, SCC: Squamous cell carcinoma, BSA: Bovine serum albumin, PBS: Phosphored buffered saline, ATCC: American Type Culture Collection.

Earthworm extract attenuates silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis through Nrf2-dependent mechanisms

Silicosis is an occupational pulmonary fibrosis caused by inhalation of silica (SiO₂) and there are no ideal drugs to treat this disease. Earthworm extract (EE), a natural nutrient, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptosis effects. The purpose of the current study was to test the protective effects of EE against SiO₂-induced pulmonary fibrosis and to explore the underlying mechanisms using both in vivo and in vitro models. We found that treatment with EE significantly reduced lung inflammation and fibrosis and improved lung structure and function in SiO₂-instilled mice. Further mechanistic investigations revealed that EE administration markedly inhibited SiO₂-induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in HBE and A549 cells. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Nrf2 activation partly mediates the interventional effects of EE against SiO₂-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Our study has identified EE to be a potential anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fibrotic drug for silicosis.

Integration of Traditional and Western Medicine in Vietnamese Populations: A Review of Health Perceptions and Therapies

In Vietnam, two types of traditional medicine (TM) are practiced: thuoc nam, medicine of the South, and thuoc bac, medicine of the North, both of which are largely based on herbal drugs used by different Vietnamese ethnic groups. This review presents recently published information from various databases regarding TM, especially herbal drugs, and its integration with Western medical practices outside and inside Vietnam. We first discuss the integration of traditional and modern health concepts by Vietnamese immigrants living outside Vietnam. Next, we describe native and emigrated health education and practices of pharmacy students, health professionals, and citizens living in Vietnam. Finally, we report the recent biological validation of medicinal plants and non-herbal therapies emerging from Vietnamese TM and their current and potential medical uses as identified by Western approaches. The main example described here involves utilization of the tree Artocarpus tonkinensis by the ethnic minority of Black Hmong in northern Vietnam, who use a decoction of its leaves to treat arthritis and backache without apparent adverse effects. Our comprehensive review emphasizes that, although Vietnam has a very rich collection of TM practices (particularly the use of herbal drugs), these therapies should be biologically and clinically validated with modern Western methods for optimal integration of Western and traditional medicine in global populations.

Selective cytotoxicity of a Vietnamese traditional formula, Nam Dia long, against MCF-7 cells by synergistic effects

BACKGROUND

Nam Dia Long (NDL) is a Vietnamese traditional formula used for the treatment of some chronic diseases, including cancers, but which lacks evidence-based support. We investigated the selective cytotoxicity of NDL on some tumor cell lines and possible interactions among its ingredients leading to the overall activity.

METHODS

Crude aqueous extracts of NDL, its ingredients including Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. subsp. unguiculata, Sauropus androgynous (L.) Merr and different ingredient combinations were used for the treatment of MCF-7, Hep G2, NCI-H460 cells and normal fibroblasts. The IC50 of NDL on tumor and normal cells were determined by sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay and used to calculate a selectivity index (SI). Apoptosis induction activity of NDL was determined by acridine orange - ethidium bromide (AO-EB) staining, genomic DNA and cell cycle analysis. The combination index (CI) reflecting the types of interactions among ingredients was calculated based on the median-effect principle. Real-time cell growth monitoring by the xCELLigence system was used to determine the kinetic profile of the treated MCF-7 cells.

RESULTS

NDL exerted cytotoxicity on all tumor and normal cells, with the highest effect on MCF-7 cells. SI values for MCF-7, Hep G2 and NCI-H460 were 6.45, 1.61 and 1.29, respectively, indicating a high selective cytotoxicity of NDL toward MCF-7 cells. Profiles of cell death differed for MCF-7 cells and fibroblasts suggesting different mechanism of action of NDL toward these two cell types. The cytotoxicity of NDL against MCF-7 cells was due to apoptosis induction. NDL caused a cell cycle non-phase-specific effect on MCF-7 cells. CI indicated synergistic interactions among the ingredients leading to the overall activity of the complete formula. The real-time monitoring of MCF-7 cells growth after being treated with NDL and three-component combinations suggested that the presence of all ingredients was needed to reach the full cytotoxic activity. The growth kinetic profile of MCF-7 cells treated with different combinations also indicated a synergistic effect of all ingredients.

CONCLUSION

NDL exhibited selective cytotoxicity toward MCF-7 cells. This effect probably resulted from synergistic interactions among the NDL ingredients. NDL should be explored for breast cancer treatment.

Report from the Second International Conference of Traditional and Complementary Medicine on Health 2015

The Second International Conference of Traditional and Complementary Medicine on Health was held from October 24th through 27th at the GIS National Taiwan University Convention Center in Taipei. Twenty-seven invited speakers, representative of fourteen Countries, delivered their lecture in front of an audience of more than two hundreds of attendees. In addition, a poster exhibition with seventy-two presenters completed the scientific sessions. The leitmotif of the Conference was to promote a common platform in which all medical knowledge is integrated to improve the health care system. Traditional medicine and complementary medicine are characterized by a holistic approach to prevent and cure diseases, making use of natural products and/or physical manipulations. In this context, the Conference emphasized the importance of the Quality Control and of standardized methods for the authentication, preparation and characterization of the herbal products and nutrient supplements, as well as the need for controlled clinical trials and for experimental studies to demonstrate the efficacy and to understand the underlying mechanisms of the preventive and curative treatments. In this report, we highlight the novel findings and the perspectives in Traditional and Complementary Medicine (TCM; 傳統暨互補醫學 chuán tǒng jì hù bǔ yī xué) that emerged during the conference.

The role of local knowledge and traditional extraction practices in the management of giant earthworms in Brazil

The giant earthworm, Rhinodrilus alatus (Righi 1971), has been captured in the southeastern Brazilian Cerrado biome for approximately 80 years and used as bait for amateur fishing throughout Brazil. Local knowledge and traditional extraction practices are crucial for the establishment of management strategies for the species because, although its extraction involves conflicts and social and environmental impacts, the species is one of the major sources of income for approximately 3,000 people, especially for members of an Afro-descendant community that has approximately 2,000 inhabitants. Participatory tools, such as seasonal calendar, transect walks and participatory maps, were individually or collectively used with extractors and traders (former extractors), and 129 semi-structured and unstructured interviews were conducted with the same individuals between 2005 and 2012. The capture of Rhinodrilus alatus was observed in different seasons and areas of occurrence of the species in 17 municipalities, where this giant earthworm is the only species extracted for trade. All information obtained was verified by community members in 17 meetings. The extractors have an extensive knowledge of the life history, behavior, distribution, and possible impacts of climate change on the species. Different capture techniques, which have different impacts, are used during the dry and rainy seasons and are passed by the extractors through the generations. Local knowledge contributed to the establishment of agreements for the use of capture techniques that have less impact, to the expansion of scientific knowledge and the reassessment of the conservation status of Rhinodrilus alatus. The present study may serve as an example for management projects for other giant earthworm species in other regions of Brazil and in other countries.

Helminthes and insects: maladies or therapies

By definition, parasites cause harm to their hosts. But, considerable evidence from ancient traditional medicine has supported the theory of using parasites and their products in treating many diseases. Maggots have been used successfully to treat chronic, long-standing, infected wounds which failed to respond to conventional treatment by many beneficial effects on the wound including debridement, disinfection, and healing enhancement. Maggots are also applied in forensic medicine to estimate time between the death and discovery of a corpse and in entomotoxicology involving the potential use of insects as alternative samples for detecting drugs and toxins in death investigations. Leeches are segmented invertebrates, famous by their blood-feeding habits and used in phlebotomy to treat various ailments since ancient times. Leech therapy is experiencing resurgence nowadays in health care principally in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Earthworms provide a source of medicinally useful products with potential antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticancer properties. Lumbrokinases are a group of fibrinolytic enzymes isolated and purified from earthworms capable of degrading plasminogen-rich and plasminogen-free fibrin and so can be used to treat various conditions associated with thrombotic diseases. Helminth infection has been proved to have therapeutic effects in both animal and human clinical trials with promising evidence in treating many allergic diseases and can block the induction of or reduce the severity of some autoimmune disorders as Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis. What is more, venomous arthropods such as scorpions, bees, wasps, spiders, ants, centipedes, snail, beetles, and caterpillars. The venoms and toxins from these arthropods provide a promising source of natural bioactive compounds which can be employed in the development of new drugs to treat diseases as cancer. The possibility of using these active molecules in biotechnological processes can make these venoms and toxins a valuable and promising source of natural bioactive compounds. The therapeutic use of helminthes and insects will be of great value in biomedicine and further studies on insect toxins will contribute extensively to the development of Biomedical Sciences.

Dilong: food for thought and medicine

Earthworms have several names in different countries (In Chinese: 地龍 dì lóng, Japanese: Mimizu, Korean: Jireongi, Spanish: Lombriz de tierra, French: Ver de terre, German: Regenwurm, Italian: Lombrico, Swedish: Daggmask, Portuguese: Minhoca). They have long been used as a food source as well as treatments of various ailments. Many alternative and traditional disciplines of medicine, such as those in China, Japan, and Korea, developed medicinal uses of dilong from an initial utilization as nutrition. Increased curiosity in the potential medicinal properties of dilong has come to fruition through bioprospecting and evidence based research. This increased questioning and searching spawned first from a growing knowledge base about the earthworm's innate immune system. Their importance in understanding the evolution of the innate immune system has long been overlooked because of the ecological importance in soil preservation, earthworm immune systems, being full of leukocytes and humoral products, offer significant advantages when used as medicines. Earthworms offer an unanticipated slew of potential health benefits without common drawbacks that come with other biological, alternative forms of medicine such as cost, ethical and pathological concerns of animal testing.

Millipedes as food for humans: their nutritional and possible antimalarial value-a first report

The first record of millipedes (Diplopoda) being regularly used for food by humans (the Bobo people of Burkina Faso) is given, including information on how the millipedes are prepared. The species in question are Tymbodesmus falcatus (Karsch, 1881) and Sphenodesmus sheribongensis (Schiøtz, 1966) (Gomphodesmidae) and an unidentified species of Spirostreptidae. New information on the nutritional value of millipedes is provided; unsaturated fatty acids, calcium, and iron contents are particularly high. The millipedes' defensive secretions, hydrogen cyanide and benzoquinones, present a severe challenge for the spread of millipedes as an everyday food source. On the other hand, the possibility that benzoquinones may act as insect-repellents, as known from studies on nonhuman primates, and that sublethal cyanide ingestion may enhance human innate resistance to malaria, suggests promising ethnomedical perspectives to our findings.

Recombinant protein production of earthworm lumbrokinase for potential antithrombotic application

Earthworms have been used as a traditional medicine in China, Japan, and other Far East countries for thousands of years. Oral administration of dry earthworm powder is considered as a potent and effective supplement for supporting healthy blood circulation. Lumbrokinases are a group of enzymes that were isolated and purified from different species of earthworms. These enzymes are recognized as fibrinolytic agents that can be used to treat various conditions associated with thrombosis. Many lumbrokinase (LK) genes have been cloned and characterized. Advances in genetic technology have provided the ability to produce recombinant LK and have made it feasible to purify a single lumbrokinase enzyme for potential antithrombotic application. In this review, we focus on expression systems that can be used for lumbrokinase production. In particular, the advantages of using a transgenic plant system to produce edible lumbrokinase are described.

Origin of innate immune responses: revelation of food and medicinal applications

Much is known about the strong ecological impact that earthworms ( Qiū Yǐn; Pheretima) have on soil in terms of fertility, nutrient production, and tilling. Even more interesting though is the impact they have had on our understanding of innate immunity, and from this discovery, there has been a simultaneous recognition of their potential through their historical use as food and their use in treatment of certain chronic health problems that often afflict humans. This bifurcating growing knowledge base has stemmed from centuries of honing and practicing traditional and complementary forms of medicine such as Ayurveda (India) Traditional Chinese Medicine (China), Kampo (Japan), and Traditional Korean Medicine (Korea). Earthworms (Dilong) have also been credited as a model for research concerning the nervous and endocrine systems. One of the reasons behind the earthworm's tremendous impact on research into these biomedical endeavors is partly due to its lack of ethical restrictions, like those imposed on vertebrate models. Using invertebrate models as opposed to mice or other mammalian models bypasses ethical concerns. Moreover, financial constraints consistently hover over biological research that requires living subjects, preferably mammals. Earthworms are a rich source of several vital biological macromolecules and other nutrients. They have long been used as food in several cultures such as the Ye'Kuana in Venezuela, the Maori in New Zealand, and the nomadic populations in Papua New Guinea. Earthworms and their nutritious products have been shown to exert significant effects in treating humans for disorders of inflammation and blood coagulation. One area that continues to be examined is the earthworm's ability to regenerate lost appendages, and these effects have been extended to mammals. Evidence reveals that earthworm extracts may actually promote the regeneration of damaged nerves. This presentation will explore how earthworms may reveal significant advances and conclusions that decipher innate immunity. This is intimately associated with them as sources of their various nutritional and medicinal benefits.

Antifungal and anticancer effects of a polysaccharide-protein complex from the gut bacterium Raoultella ornithinolytica isolated from the earthworm Dendrobaena veneta

The polysaccharide-protein complex (PPC) isolated from metabolites of gut bacteria Raoultella ornithinolytica from Dendrobaena veneta earthworms exhibits activity against Candida albicans, in breast ductal carcinoma (line T47D) and in the endometrioid ovarian cancer line (TOV-112D) in vitro. The action against C. albicans was analyzed using light, SEM, TEM, and AFM microscopes. The changes observed indicated two directions of the action of the complex, that is, disturbance of metabolic activity and cell wall damage. The PPC is an adhesion-promoting complex inducing death of C. albicans cells by necrosis. Owing to its significant effect on C. albicans, the complex is a promising source of antifungal compounds. The PPC showed a minimal cytotoxic effect against human skin fibroblasts; however, the cytotoxicity against the T47D line was determined at 20% and 15% against the TOV-112D line. The action of the PPC against the T47D line exerted a cytopathic effect, whereas in the TOV-112D line, it caused a reduction in the cell number. The PPC induced death of tumor cells by apoptosis and necrosis. In view of the negligible cytotoxicity on fibroblasts, the PPC will be subjected to chemical modifications to increase its antitumor activity for prospective medical applications.

Lumbrokinase attenuates side-stream-smoke-induced apoptosis and autophagy in young hamster hippocampus: correlated with eNOS induction and NFκB/iNOS/COX-2 signaling suppression

Recent studies have found that cigarette smoke is epidemiologically linked to an increased risk for impaired cognitive development in adolescents. This study evaluated the influence of side stream smoke (SSS) exposure on hippocampal apoptosis and of the lumbrokinase (LK) effects on SSS induced apoptosis in young hamster hippocampus. Twenty male hamsters at six weeks of age were randomly divided into control group, SSS group (exposed to tobacco cigarettes smoke at doses of 10 cigarettes for 30 min twice a day for 1 month), and SSS hamsters with LK treatment (1.2 mg/kg, ip) for twice a week for 1 month. TUNEL assay and Western blotting were performed. The TUNEL-positive apoptotic cells, as well as Fas-dependent activity and mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathways, such as Fas, FADD, activated caspase-8, t-Bid, activated caspase-9, and activated caspase-3, were significantly increased in the SSS-exposed hippocampus compared to the control and highly attenuated in the LK treatment group. Additionally, SSS exposure significantly increased the autophagy marker proteins, Beclin-1, ATG7, and LC3-II levels, in the hippocampus compared to those in the control group and obviously attenuated after LK treatment. LK also reduced hippocampus injury by enhancing eNOS expression and remarkably inhibited the proinflammatory NFκB/iNOS/COX-2 signaling activity. We found that the detrimental effects of SSS on the hippocampus are truly mediated by cell apoptosis and autophagy. However, LK reduced the hippocampus apoptosis and autophagy related injuries induced by SSS in a widespread manner. We suggest that LK presents protective effects on hippocampus apoptosis and has therapeutic potential against abnormal hippocampal function.

Cloning, expression and characterization of a gene from earthworm Eisenia fetida encoding a blood-clot dissolving protein

A lumbrokinase gene encoding a blood-clot dissolving protein was cloned from earthworm (Eisenia fetida) by RT-PCR amplification. The gene designated as CST1 (GenBank No. AY840996) was sequence analyzed. The cDNA consists of 888 bp with an open reading frame of 729 bp, which encodes 242 amino acid residues. Multiple sequence alignments revealed that CST1 shares similarities and conserved amino acids with other reported lumbrokinases. The amino acid sequence of CST1 exhibits structural features similar to those found in other serine proteases, including human tissue-type (tPA), urokinase (uPA), and vampire bat (DSPAα1) plasminogen activators. CST1 has a conserved catalytic triad, found in the active sites of protease enzymes, which are important residues involved in polypeptide catalysis. CST1 was expressed as inclusion bodies in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). The molecular mass of recombinant CST1 (rCST) was 25 kDa as estimated by SDS–PAGE, and further confirmed by Western Blot analysis. His-tagged rCST1 was purified and renatured using nickel-chelating resin with a recovery rate of 50% and a purity of 95%. The purified, renatured rCST1 showed fibrinolytic activity evaluated by both a fibrin plate and a blood clot lysis assay. rCST1 degraded fibrin on the fibrin plate. A significant percentage (65.7%) of blood clot lysis was observed when blood clot was treated with 80 mg/mL of rCST1 in vitro. The antithrombotic activity of rCST1 was 912 units/mg calculated by comparison with the activity of a lumbrokinase standard. These findings indicate that rCST1 has potential as a potent blood-clot treatment. Therefore, the expression and purification of a single lumbrokinase represents an important improvement in the use of lumbrokinases.