Electroacupuncture inhibition of hyperalgesia in rats with adjuvant arthritis: involvement of cannabinoid receptor 1 and dopamine receptor subtypes in striatum

TRPM8's Role in the Shift Between Opioid and Cannabinoid Pathways in Electroacupuncture for Inflammatory Pain in Mice

The TRPM8 channel, a temperature-sensitive ion channel, plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, particularly in the modulation of inflammation and nociception. Although electroacupuncture (EA) is a recognized analgesic treatment for pain conditions, its interaction with TRPM8 remains underexplored. This study aims to determine TRPM8's role in EA-induced analgesia using a murine model of inflammatory pain. Mechanical allodynia, evidenced by a reduced paw withdrawal threshold (PWT), was induced in both wild-type and Trpm8-/- mice through CFA injection. EA applied at the GB34 and LR3 acupoints significantly alleviated mechanical allodynia in both groups. In wild-type mice, the analgesic effects of EA were partially reversed by naloxone (an opioid receptor antagonist) or AM251 (a CB1 receptor antagonist) and fully reversed by their combination. In contrast, only AM251 reversed EA-induced analgesia in Trpm8-/- or TRPM8-inhibited wild-type mice (via AMTB treatment, a TRPM8 antagonist), indicating no involvement of the opioid pathway. Additionally, the combination of menthol, a partial TRPM8 agonist, and EA enhanced analgesia in wild-type mice. In Trpm8-/- or AMTB-pretreated mice, the CB1 receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 (WIN) exhibited stronger analgesic effects compared to wild-type controls. These findings suggest that EA at LR3 and GB34 mediates analgesia through both opioid and endocannabinoid pathways. TRPM8 is critical for EA to activate the opioid pathway, while its inhibition or deletion shifts the analgesic mechanism towards reliance on the cannabinoid system. Understanding this mechanistic shift may help optimize EA treatment strategies and improve pain management outcomes.

Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) Practices: A Narrative Review Elucidating the Impact on Healthcare Systems, Mechanisms and Paediatric Applications

While research on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for the general population is expanding, there remains a scarcity of studies investigating the efficacy and utilisation of CAM practices, specifically in the paediatric population. In accordance with the World Health Organization (WHO), the prevalence of the parental utilisation of CAM in their dependents is estimated to reach up to 80%. This literature review identified broad, heterogeneous, and inconclusive evidence regarding CAM's applications and effectiveness, primarily attributed to variance in sociodemographic factors and differences in national healthcare systems. Additionally, the review identified a lack of consensus and polarised positions among mainstream professionals regarding the mechanisms of action, applications, and effectiveness of CAM. This narrative review presents varied results concerning the efficacy of most CAM therapies and their applications; however, some evidence suggests potential benefits for acupuncture, yoga, tai chi, and massage in improving physical and mental health. Moreover, the available evidence indicates that meditation may enhance mental health, while reiki may only influence patients' perceptions of comfort. In light of the intricate and multifaceted nature of herbal medicine, it is imperative to assess its efficacy on a case-by-case basis, taking into account the specific compounds and procedures involved. This comprehensive review serves as a valuable resource for health professionals, offering guidance for personalised healthcare approaches that consider the values and beliefs of patients, thereby facilitating integrated, evidence-based practices aimed at enhancing the quality of healthcare services and patient satisfaction.

The effect of acupuncture on pain and swelling of arthritis animal models: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Arthritis, the inflammation of joints, attributes to the patient's pain, joint deformation, and limited range of motion. Emerging studies have shown the effects of acupuncture on different types of arthritis. We aimed to assess the effects of acupuncture on arthritis animal models and summarize the related mechanisms. We retrieved studies that met our criteria from PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Research Information Service System. The quality assessment was evaluated by using the Systematic Review Centre for Laboratory Animal Experimentation's risk of bias tool. The pain withdrawal latency, pain withdrawal threshold, and paw volume data were digitized using Engauge Digitizer software. The meta-analysis was performed, and the figures were generated using RevMan software. The meta-analysis of data from 21 animal studies revealed that acupuncture increased tolerance to pain stimuli, and reduced swelling in arthritis animals. Although the number of included studies is insufficient, the results suggest acupuncture to be effective in improving arthritis-induced inflammation and pain by regulating the nervous and immune system.

Acupuncture therapy as an Evidence-Based Nonpharmacologic Strategy for Comprehensive Acute Pain Care: the Academic Consortium Pain Task Force White Paper Update

Background

A crisis in pain management persists, as does the epidemic of opioid overdose deaths, addiction, and diversion. Pain medicine is meeting these challenges by returning to its origins: the Bonica model of multidisciplinary pain care. The 2018 Academic Consortium White Paper detailed the historical context and magnitude of the pain crisis and the evidence base for nonpharmacologic strategies. More than 50% of chronic opioid use begins in the acute pain care setting. Acupuncture may be able to reduce this risk.

Objective

This article updates the evidence base for acupuncture therapy for acute pain with a review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses on postsurgical/perioperative pain with opioid sparing and acute nonsurgical/trauma pain, including acute pain in the emergency department.

Methods

To update reviews cited in the 2018 White Paper, electronic searches were conducted in PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials for “acupuncture” and “acupuncture therapy” and “acute pain,” “surgery,” “peri-operative,” “trauma,” “emergency department,” “urgent care,” “review(s) ,” “systematic review,” “meta-analysis,” with additional manual review of titles, links, and reference lists.

Results

There are 22 systematic reviews, 17 with meta-analyses of acupuncture in acute pain settings, and a review for acute pain in the intensive care unit. There are additional studies of acupuncture in acute pain settings.

Conclusion

The majority of reviews found acupuncture therapy to be an efficacious strategy for acute pain, with potential to avoid or reduce opioid reliance. Future multicenter trials are needed to clarify the dosage and generalizability of acupuncture for acute pain in the emergency department. With an extremely low risk profile, acupuncture therapy is an important strategy in comprehensive acute pain care.

Bioinformatics/network topology analysis of acupuncture in the treatment of COVID-19: response to methodological issues

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic and there is an urgent need to discover the therapy for COVID-19. In our original article, we first obtained the target proteins of acupuncture and related target genes of COVID-19 by searching English and Chinese databases, then Gene Ontology biological processes and enrichment analysis were performed on the overlapping targets of acupuncture with COVID-19. Moreover, the compound-target and compound-disease-target network was constructed. This is an innovative attempt to predict the potential benefits of acupuncture treatment for COVID-19. In this letter, we answered reader Zheng's comments.

Role of Neuroimmune Crosstalk in Mediating the Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects of Acupuncture on Inflammatory Pain

Inflammatory pain is caused by peripheral tissue injury and inflammation. Inflammation leads to peripheral sensitization, which may further cause central sensitization, resulting in chronic pain and progressive functional disability. Neuroimmune crosstalk plays an essential role in the development and maintenance of inflammatory pain. Studies in recent years have shown that acupuncture can exert anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects by regulating peripheral (i.e., involving local acupoints and inflamed regions) and central neuroimmune interactions. At the local acupoints, acupuncture can activate the TRPV1 and TRPV2 channels of mast cells, thereby promoting degranulation and the release of histamine, adenosine, and other immune mediators, which interact with receptors on nerve endings and initiate neuroimmune regulation. At sites of inflammation, acupuncture enables the recruitment of immune cells, causing the release of opioid peptides, while also exerting direct analgesic effects via nerve endings. Furthermore, acupuncture promotes the balance of immune cells and regulates the release of inflammatory factors, thereby reducing the stimulation of nociceptive receptors in peripheral organs. Acupuncture also alleviates peripheral neurogenic inflammation by inhibiting the release of substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide from the dorsal root ganglia. At the central nervous system level, acupuncture inhibits the crosstalk between glial cells and neurons by inhibiting the p38 MAPK, ERK, and JNK signaling pathways and regulating the release of inflammatory mediators. It also reduces the excitability of the pain pathway by reducing the release of excitatory neurotransmitters and promoting the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters from neurons and glial cells. In conclusion, the regulation of neuroimmune crosstalk at the peripheral and central levels mediates the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of acupuncture on inflammatory pain in an integrated manner. These findings provide novel insights enabling the clinical application of acupuncture in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The Endocannabinoid System Contributes to Electroacupuncture Analgesia

The extensive involvement of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in vital physiological and cognitive processes of the human body has inspired many investigations into the role of the ECS and drugs, and therapies that target this system and its receptors. Activation of cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB₁ and CB₂) by cannabinoid treatments, including synthetic cannabinoids, alleviates behavioral responses to inflammatory and neuropathic pain. An increasing body of scientific evidence details how electroacupuncture (EA) treatments achieve effective analgesia and reduce inflammation by modulating cannabinoid signaling, without the adverse effects resulting from synthetic cannabinoid administration. CB₁ receptors in the ventrolateral area of the periaqueductal gray are critically important for the mechanisms of the EA antinociceptive effect, while peripheral CB₂ receptors are related to the anti-inflammatory effects of EA. This review explores the evidence detailing the endocannabinoid mechanisms involved in EA antinociception.

Electroacupuncture activates inhibitory neural circuits in the somatosensory cortex to relieve neuropathic pain

Electroacupuncture (EA) has been accepted to effectively relieve neuropathic pain. Current knowledge of its neural modulation mainly covers the spinal cord and subcortical nuclei, with little evidence from the cortical regions. Using in vivo two-photon imaging in mice with chronic constriction injury, we found that EA treatment systemically modulated the Ca²⁺ activity of neural circuits in the primary somatosensory cortex, including the suppression of excitatory pyramidal neurons, potentiation of GABAergic somatostatin-positive interneurons, and suppression of vasoactive intestinal peptide-positive interneurons. Furthermore, EA-mediated alleviation of pain hypersensitivity and cortical modulation were dependent on the activation of endocannabinoid receptor 1. These findings collectively reveal a cortical circuit involved in relieving mechanical or thermal hypersensitivity under neuropathic pain and identify one molecular pathway directing analgesic effects of EA.

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Electroacupuncture (EA) relieves mechanical hypersensitivity in neuropathic pain

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EA restores normal excitatory-inhibitory transmission in sensory cortex

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Endocannabinoid pathway underlies EA's effects via modulating inhibitory circuits

Acupuncture for Pain Management: Molecular Mechanisms of Action

Acupuncture reduces pain by activating specific areas called acupoints on the patient’s body. When these acupoints are fully activated, sensations of soreness, numbness, fullness, or heaviness called De qi or Te qi are felt by clinicians and patients. There are two kinds of acupuncture, manual acupuncture and electroacupuncture (EA). Compared with non-acupoints, acupoints are easily activated on the basis of their special composition of blood vessels, mast cells, and nerve fibers that mediate the acupuncture signals. In the spinal cord, EA can inhibit glial cell activation by down-regulating the chemokine CX3CL1 and increasing the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10. This inhibits P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathways, which are associated with microglial activation of the C-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathway and subsequent astrocyte activation. The inactivation of spinal microglia and astrocytes mediates the immediate and long-term analgesic effects of EA, respectively. A variety of pain-related substances released by glial cells such as the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor [Formula: see text], interleukin-1[Formula: see text], interleukin-6, and prostaglandins such as prostaglandins E2 can also be reduced. The descending pain modulation system in the brain, including the anterior cingulated cortex, the periaqueductal gray, and the rostral ventromedial medulla, plays an important role in EA analgesia. Multiple transmitters and modulators, including endogenous opioids, cholecystokinin octapeptide, 5-hydroxytryptamine, glutamate, noradrenalin, dopamine, [Formula: see text]-aminobutyric acid, acetylcholine, and orexin A, are involved in acupuncture analgesia. Finally, the “Acupuncture [Formula: see text]” strategy is introduced to help clinicians achieve better analgesic effects, and a newly reported acupuncture method called acupoint catgut embedding, which injects sutures made of absorbable materials at acupoints to achieve long-term effects, is discussed.

Transmodulation of Dopaminergic Signaling to Mitigate Hypodopminergia and Pharmaceutical Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia

Neuroscientists and psychiatrists working in the areas of "pain and addiction" are asked in this perspective article to reconsider the current use of dopaminergic blockade (like chronic opioid agonist therapy), and instead to consider induction of dopamine homeostasis by putative pro-dopamine regulation. Pro-dopamine regulation could help pharmaceutical opioid analgesic agents to mitigate hypodopaminergia-induced hyperalgesia by inducing transmodulation of dopaminergic signaling. An optimistic view is that early predisposition to diagnosis based on genetic testing, (pharmacogenetic/pharmacogenomic monitoring), combined with appropriate urine drug screening, and treatment with pro-dopamine regulators, could conceivably reduce stress, craving, and relapse, enhance well-being and attenuate unwanted hyperalgesia. These concepts require intensive investigation. However, based on the rationale provided herein, there is a good chance that combining opioid analgesics with genetically directed pro-dopamine-regulation using KB220 (supported by 43 clinical studies). This may become a front-line technology with the potential to overcome, in part, the current heightened rates of chronic opioid-induced hyperalgesia and concomitant Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) behaviors. Current research does support the hypothesis that low or hypodopaminergic function in the brain may predispose individuals to low pain tolerance or hyperalgesia.

Perioperative acupuncture medicine: a novel concept instead of acupuncture anesthesia

Objective:

To confirm that acupuncture applied to patients would improve the clinical curative effect and accelerate the patient's recovery by introducing the application of acupuncture in pre-operation, during operation, and post-operation.

Data sources:

Literature cited in this review was retrieved from PubMed, Web of Science, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and was primarily published in English or Chinese from 2010 to 2018, with keywords of “acupuncture,” “electroacupuncture,” “perioperative period,” “sedation,” “analgesia,” and “recovery.” Relevant citations in the retrieved articles were also screened to include more data.

Study selection:

All retrieved literature was scrutinized, most typical articles related on perioperative acupuncture application in clinical study were reviewed.

Results:

Acupuncture could relieve anxiety and stress during the preoperative stage. It reduces the usage of narcotics and stress response, and maintains the respiratory stability and homeostasis during surgery. It also exerts a protective effect on vital organs, and during the postoperative stages, enhances the recovery while effectively alleviating the postoperative pain. This phenomenon prevents common postoperative discomforts such as nausea and vomiting. In addition, it might improve the patients’ long-term prognosis.

Conclusions:

The novel concept “perioperative acupuncture medicine” is to focus on the optimal treatment in the perioperative period of surgical patients. The review reveals the important role of acupuncture in enhancing rapid recovery of patients during the perioperative period.

Electroacupuncture alleviates morphine‑induced hyperalgesia by regulating spinal CB1 receptors and ERK1/2 activity

Electroacupuncture (EA), a traditional Chinese therapeutic technique, is considered an effective method for treating certain painful neuropathies induced by various neuropathological damage. The current study investigated the effect of EA on intrathecal (IT) morphine-induced hyperalgesia (MIH) and examined the hypothesis that activation of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) could enhance the antinociceptive effect of EA on MIH via regulation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling pathway. Using a rat model of IT MIH, mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia were evaluated by an electronic von Frey filament and hotplate at baseline (1 day before IT administration) and at days 1, 3, 5 and 7 after IT administration. Rats received IT normal saline, IT morphine or IT morphine + EA at ST36-GB34. The protein levels of ERK1/2, phosphorylated (p)-ERK1/2 and CB1 in the spinal cord were assayed by western blotting. Furthermore, the effect of IT injection of the CB1 agonist WIN 55,212-2 and the CB1 antagonist SR141716 on the antinociceptive effect of EA in rats with MIH was investigated. Nociceptive behavior and ERK1/2, phosphorylated (p)-ERK1/2 and CB1 protein levels were evaluated as mentioned above. The results revealed that chronic IT injections of morphine induced a significant decrease in mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) and thermal withdrawal latency (TWL) accompanied with remarkable upregulation of p-ERK1/2 in the spinal cord, which could be attenuated by EA at the ST36-GB34 acupoints. In the rat model of MIH, IT injection of WIN 55,212-2 combined with EA induced a significant increase in MWT and TWL accompanied with a significant decrease in p-ERK1/2 and a significant increase in CB1 protein level compared with EA alone, while SR141716 induced the opposite results. The present study suggests that EA alleviates hyperalgesia induced by IT injection of morphine partially through the inhibition of ERK1/2 activation. Activation of the CB1 receptor enhances the antinociceptive effect of EA in rats with MIH partly through the regulation of the spinal CB1-ERK1/2 signaling pathway.

The endocannabinoid system, a novel and key participant in acupuncture's multiple beneficial effects

Acupuncture and its modified forms have been used to treat multiple medical conditions, but whether the diverse effects of acupuncture are intrinsically linked at the cellular and molecular level and how they might be connected have yet to be determined. Recently, an emerging role for the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in the regulation of a variety of physiological/pathological conditions has been identified. Overlap between the biological and therapeutic effects induced by ECS activation and acupuncture has facilitated investigations into the participation of ECS in the acupuncture-induced beneficial effects, which have shed light on the idea that the ECS may be a primary mediator and regulatory factor of acupuncture's beneficial effects. This review seeks to provide a comprehensive summary of the existing literature concerning the role of endocannabinoid signaling in the various effects of acupuncture, and suggests a novel notion that acupuncture may restore homeostasis under different pathological conditions by regulating similar networks of signaling pathways, resulting in the activation of different reaction cascades in specific tissues in response to pathological insults.

Acupuncture Attenuated Vascular Dementia–Induced Hippocampal Long-Term Potentiation Impairments via Activation of D1/D5 Receptors

Background and Purpose—

Emerging evidence suggests that acupuncture could improve cognitive impairment in vascular dementia by enhancing synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether dopamine, a key mediator of synaptic plasticity, is involved in this cognitive improvement.

Methods—

Vascular dementia model was established by bilateral common carotid arteries occlusion in male Wistar rats. Three days after the operation, animals received acupuncture treatment for 2 weeks, once daily. The D1/D5 receptors antagonist SCH23390 was administered intraperitoneally 15 minutes before each acupuncture treatment. Morris water maze was examined after acupuncture. Long-term potentiation was studied by an electrophysiological technique. Dopamine and metabolites levels were detected by microdialysis and high-performance liquid chromatography from brain tissue. The expression of D1R and D5R was analyzed by immunofluorescence.

Results—

Acupuncture remarkably reversed cognitive deficits in 2-vessel occlusion model (2VO) rats, and the acupuncture points Zusanli (ST36) and Baihui (GV20) were confirmed to be the most effective combination. Electrophysiological recording data showed that 2VO-induced impairments of long-term potentiation were prevented by acupuncture. In addition, acupuncture promoted the release of dopamine and its major metabolites in the hippocampus of 2VO rats. The immunofluorescence experiment showed that the decrease of D1R and D5R in hippocampal dentate gyrus region of 2VO rats was reversed by acupuncture. Furthermore, we found that the effects of acupuncture against 2VO-induced impairments in cognition and synaptic plasticity were abolished by SCH23390.

Conclusions—

Improvement in cognition and hippocampal synaptic plasticity induced by acupuncture was achieved via activation of D1/D5 receptors in 2VO rats.

Mediators, Receptors, and Signalling Pathways in the Anti-Inflammatory and Antihyperalgesic Effects of Acupuncture

Acupuncture has been used for millennia to treat allergic diseases including both intermittent rhinitis and persistent rhinitis. Besides the research on the efficacy and safety of acupuncture treatment for allergic rhinitis, research has also investigated how acupuncture might modulate immune function to exert anti-inflammatory effects. A proposed model has previously hypothesized that acupuncture might downregulate proinflammatory neuropeptides, proinflammatory cytokines, and neurotrophins, modulating transient receptor potential vallinoid (TRPV1), a G-protein coupled receptor which plays a central role in allergic rhinitis. Recent research has been largely supportive of this model. New advances in research include the discovery of a novel cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway activated by acupuncture. A chemokine-mediated proliferation of opioid-containing macrophages in inflamed tissues, in response to acupuncture, has also been demonstrated for the first time. Further research on the complex cross talk between receptors during inflammation is also helping to elucidate the mediators and signalling pathways activated by acupuncture.

Effects of acupuncture stimulation at different acupoints on formalin-induced pain in rats

Acupuncture is the process of stimulating skin regions called meridians or acupoints and has been used to treat pain-related symptoms. However, the pain-relieving effects of acupuncture may be different depending on acupoints. In the present study, the effects of acupuncture on behavioral responses and c-Fos expression were evaluated using a formalin test in male Sprague-Dawley rats in order to clarify the analgesic effects of three different acupoints. Each rat received manual acupuncture at the ST36 (Zusanli), SP9 (Yinlingquan) or BL60 (Kunlun) acupoint before formalin injection. Flinching and licking behaviors were counted by two blinded investigators. Fos-like immunoreactivity was examined by immunohistochemistry in the rat spinal cord. Manual acupuncture treatment at BL60 acupoint showed significant inhibition in flinching behavior but not in licking. Manual acupuncture at ST36 or SP9 tended to inhibit flinching and licking behaviors but the effects were not statistically significant. The acupuncture at ST36, SP9, or BL60 reduced c-Fos expression as compared with the control group. These results suggest that acupuncture especially at the BL60 acupoint is more effective in relieving inflammatory pain than other acupoints.

Effects of Electroacupuncture on PGC-1 α Expression in Brown Adipose Tissue

The inducible coactivator PGC-1 α plays master regulator in mitochondrial biogenesis and thermogenesis in brown adipose tissues (BATs). BAT is a natural antiobesity organ which dissipates chemical energy in the form of heat through specialized mitochondrial protein UCP-1. Eletroacupuncture (EA) has been widely used as an alternative treatment for obesity and its related disorders such as type 2 diabetes. The molecular mechanism of electroacupuncture on treatment of obesity is still unclear. We hypothesized that electroacupuncture induced PGC-1 α expression to increase the energy expenditure in BAT. Rats were randomly divided into control group and electroacupuncture treatment group. We investigated the effects of electroacupuncture at Zusanli (ST36) acupoint on the expressions of PGC-1 α and its associated genes in the BAT of rats using real-time PCR and western blotting. We found that electroacupuncture effectively induces the expression of PGC-1 α and UCP-1 by 4-fold and 5-fold in the BAT of rats, respectively. Our results indicated that the molecular mechanism of electroacupuncture for the treatment of obesity may be, or at least partially, through induction of both PGC-1 α and UCP-1 expressions to increase energy expenditure in BAT.