Millipedes as food for humans: their nutritional and possible antimalarial value-a first report

Wild Blonde Capuchins (Sapajus flavius) Perform Anointing Behaviour Using Toxic Secretions of a Millipede (Spirobolida: Rhinocricidae)

Defensive secretions of millipedes are remarkable for containing toxic quinones known to efficiently repell hematophagous arthropods. Here we show that Endangered blonde capuchin monkeys make use of such secretions. We (i) describe the anointing behavior performed by the monkeys (ii) identify the millipede species used in the process (iii) describe the volatile chemical composition of its secretion. The blonde capuchin monkeys selectively searched for millipedes hidden under the ground. We observed three bouts of anointing behavior, performed by 13 individuals of all age classes (from adults to independent infants), both solitarily (1 event) and socially (10 events). The only millipede species used by the monkeys is an undescribed species of the genus Poecilocricus (Spirobolida, Rhinocricidae). The volatile chemical composition of the secretions was predominantly comprised of a mixture of benzoquinones and hydroquinones. The social nature of the behavior and time of the observations (mosquito season), suggest that social bonding and mosquito avoidance is linked to the anointing behavior of the monkeys.

Multifaceted activity of millipede secretions: Antioxidant, antineurodegenerative, and anti-Fusarium effects of the defensive secretions of Pachyiulus hungaricus (Karsch, 1881) and Megaphyllum unilineatum (C. L. Koch, 1838) (Diplopoda: Julida)

Members of the millipede order Julida rely on dominantly quinonic defensive secretions with several minor, non-quinonic components. The free radical-scavenging activities of ethanol, methanol, hexane, and dichloromethane extracts of defensive secretions emitted by Pachyiulus hungaricus (Karsch, 1881) and Megaphyllum unilineatum (C. L. Koch, 1838) were investigated using the ABTS, DPPH, and total reducing power (TRP) tests. The obtained extracts were also tested for inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and tyrosinase activity. Finally, the antifungal potential of both julid extracts was evaluated against seven Fusarium species. Secretions of both species showed activity against free radicals, acetylcholinesterase, tyrosinase, and all of the selected fungal species. The secretions of P. hungaricus exhibited a more potent antioxidative effect than did those of M. unilineatum, while there were no significant differences of antiacetylcholinesterase activity between the tested extracts. Only the hexane extract of M. unilineatum showed an effect on tyrosinase activity stronger than that of P. hungaricus. Fusarium sporotrichioides, F. graminearum, and F. verticillioides were the fungi most resistant to secretions of both julids. The Fusarium species most susceptible to the secretion of P. hungaricus was F. avenaceum, while the concentrations of M. unilienatum extracts needed to inhibit and completely suppress fungal growth were lowest in the case of their action on F. lateritium. Our data support previous findings that julid defensive secretions possess an antimicrobial potential and reveal their antioxidative and antineurodegenrative properties. Bearing in mind the chemical complexity of the tested defensive secretions, we presume that they can also exhibit other biological activities.

Potential self-medication using millipede secretions in red-fronted lemurs: combining anointment and ingestion for a joint action against gastrointestinal parasites?

Self-anointing, referring to the behaviour of rubbing a material object or foreign substance over different parts of the body, has been observed in several vertebrate species, including primates. Several functions, such as detoxifying a rich food source, social communication and protection against ectoparasites, have been proposed to explain this behaviour. Here, we report observations of six wild red-fronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons) of both sexes and different age classes anointing their perianal-genital areas and tails with chewed millipedes. Several individuals also ingested millipedes after prolonged chewing. In light of the features of the observed interactions with millipedes, and the nature and potential metabolic pathways of the released chemicals, we suggest a potential self-medicative function. Specifically, we propose that anointing combined with the ingestion of millipedes' benzoquinone secretions by red-fronted lemurs may act in a complementary fashion against gastrointestinal parasite infections, and more specifically Oxyuridae nematodes, providing both prophylactic and therapeutic effects.

Ugly but tasty: A systematic review of possible human and animal health risks related to entomophagy

BACKGROUND

According to many recent studies, the use of insects as food seems to be convenient, sustainable, economical and healthy. The objective of this study is to analyze the possible effects of insect consumption on human and animal health.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed using the PubMed, Scopus and CAB databases.

RESULTS

Of the 6026 items initially retrieved, 70 were eligible for inclusion; 40 studies analyzed the use of insects in human foods or drugs, while 30 analyzed the use of insects in animal feed. In humans, the most commonly analyzed risks are nutrient malabsorption, growth alteration, chemical and microbiological contamination and allergy risk. Studies of animals focus on growth alteration, nutrient malabsorption and hematic and qualitative meat alteration.

CONCLUSION

In recent years, researchers have shifted their focus from the possible use of edible insects in animal feed to their use as possible nutrient sources for humans. The results suggest that, if properly treated and preserved, products derived from insects are safe and efficient sources of nutrients for animals. Further studies are needed to evaluate the possible effects of prolonged insect consumption on human health.

Therapeutic arthropods and other, largely terrestrial, folk-medicinally important invertebrates: a comparative survey and review

Traditional healing methods involving hundreds of insect and other invertebrate species are reviewed. Some of the uses are based on the tenet of "similia similibus" (let likes be cured by likes), but not all non-conventional health promoting practices should be dismissed as superstition or wishful thinking, for they have stood the test of time. Two questions are addressed: how can totally different organ systems in a human possibly benefit from extracts, potions, powders, secretions, ashes, etc. of a single species and how can different target organs, e.g. bronchi, lungs, the urinary bladder, kidneys, etc. apparently respond to a range of taxonomically not even closely related species? Even though therapeutically used invertebrates are generally small, they nevertheless possess organs for specific functions, e.g. digestion, gas exchange, reproduction. They have a nervous system, endocrine glands, a heart and muscle tissue and they contain a multitude of different molecules like metabolites, enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, secretions, etc. that have come under increased scientific scrutiny for pharmacological properties. Bearing that in mind it seems likely that a single species prepared and used in different ways could have a multitude of uses. But how, for example, can there be remedies for breathing and other problems, involving earthworms, molluscs, termites, beetles, cockroaches, bugs, and dragonflies? Since invertebrates themselves can suffer from infections and cancers, common defence reactions are likely to have evolved in all invertebrates, which is why it would be far more surprising to find that each species had evolved its own unique disease fighting system. To obtain a more comprehensive picture, however, we still need information on folk medicinal uses of insects and other invertebrates from a wider range of regions and ethnic groups, but this task is hampered by western-based medicines becoming increasingly dominant and traditional healers being unable and sometimes even unwilling to transmit their knowledge to the younger generation. However, collecting and uncontrolled uses of therapeutic invertebrates can put undue pressure on certain highly sought after species and this is something that has to be borne in mind as well.

Avian predators avoid attacking artificial aposematic millipedes in Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Avian predators may represent an important selective pressure favouring the evolution of aposematic colouration in millipedes that present chemical defences. However, the role of their warning colouration in predator avoidance remains poorly explored under field conditions, especially in Neotropical forests. Thus, to evaluate the hypothesis of the predator avoidance, we conducted a factorial experiment utilizing artificial replicas of millipedes constructed from plasticine and placed in the natural habitat of Odontopeltis aleijadinho (Polydesmida, Chelodesmidae), an Atlantic Forest endemic aposematic millipede. We assessed patterns of attack to aposematic and non-aposematic replicas applied with repugnant fluid extracted from living millipedes and two control treatments, distributed as a total of 300 replicas exposed for 48 h on the forest floor. The average percentage of replicas attacked was nearly 10-fold higher on those non-aposematic control replicas (13.3% ± 3.3%) than on aposematic replicas (1.3% ± 0.9%). In 24 replicas attacked by avian predators, no effect of millipede repugnant fluid was found, but the effect of colouration pattern was statistically significant. Our data support the hypothesis that a warning colouration pattern involving yellow spots symmetrically distributed along the millipede body can mediate avian predator avoidance.

Biochemical composition of two giant pill-millipedes of the Western Ghats of India

Many invertebrates have an unexpected nutraceutical potential and are of nutritional or ethnomedicinal significance to many tribals throughout the world. The giant pill-millipedes of the genus Arthrosphaera are traditionally used as natural medicines by tribals in the Western Ghats of India. In this study, two species of pill-millipedes (Arthrosphaera fumosa and A. magna) were subjected to proximate and biochemical analysis to ascertain their nutritional potential. Bodies of A. fumosa and A. magna (after removal of their intestines) had a low protein content (8-15%) and high quantity of carbohydrates (40-41%). They were rich in many essential elements, especially in calcium. The essential amino acids of pillmillipedes were in high quantities. The level of glycine was the highest, followed by lysine and serine. The fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) of males and females consist of high quantities of unsaturated fatty acids. The mono-unsaturated fatty acids were more abundant than poly-unsaturated fatty acids. Palmitic and oleic acids were dominant saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, respectively. The study has revealed for the first time that pill-millipedes of the Western Ghats of India constitute a good source of essential minerals, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids. Being valuable contributors of organic manure by processing recalcitrant plant lignocellulosic wastes, pill-millipedes become part and parcel of organic farming as well as future nutraceutical sources.

New observations - with older ones reviewed - on mass migrations in millipedes based on a recent outbreak on Hachijojima (Izu Islands) of the polydesmid diplopod (Chamberlinius hualienensis, Wang 1956): Nothing appears to make much sense

Mass aggregations and migrations of millipedes despite numerous attempts to find causes for their occurrences are still an enigma. They have been reported from both southern and northern hemisphere countries, from highlands and lowlands of both tropical and temperate regions and they can involve species belonging to the orders Julida and Spirobolida, Polydesmida and Glomerida. According to the main suggestions put forward in the past, mass occurrences in Diplopoda occur: (1) because of a lack of food and a population increase beyond sustainable levels; (2) for the purpose of reproduction and in order to locate suitable oviposition sites; (3) to find overwintering or aestivation sites; (4) because of habitat disruption and changes in the local environment; (5) as a consequence of weather conditions the year (or winter and spring) before. A recent outbreak (November 2014) of a mass migration of the polydesmid Chamberlinius hualienensis Wang 1956 on the Japanese Izu Island of Hachijojima 300 km to the south of Tokyo gave this author an opportunity to review the existing literature on millipede mass migrations and to carry out additional observations on the phenomenon in the field as well as the laboratory. Hitherto unreported heavy infestations with phoretic deutonymphs of the mite Histiostoma sp. as well as dense populations of internal rhabditid nematodes (Oscheius cf. necromena and an unidentified species of the genus Fictor), suggest that infestations of this kind could be necromenic and either have been a contributing factor for the mass migration or been a consequence of so many individuals occurring together at close proximity. It is concluded that mass migrations and aggregations in millipedes do not have one common cause, but represent phenomena that often are seasonally recurring events and appear identical in their outcome, but which have evolved as responses to different causes in different millipede taxa and therefore need to be examined on a case-to-case basis.