Sex Differences in Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease: The Modifying Effect of Apolipoprotein E ε4 Status

Neuropsychiatric Comorbidities and Psychotropic Medication Use in Medicare Beneficiaries With Dementia by Sex and Race

BACKGROUND

Neuropsychiatric symptoms affect the majority of dementia patients. Past studies report high rates of potentially inappropriate prescribing of psychotropic medications in this population. We investigate differences in neuropsychiatric diagnoses and psychotropic medication prescribing in a local US cohort by sex and race.

METHODS

We utilize Medicare claims and prescription fill records in a cohort of 100% Medicare North and South Carolina beneficiaries ages 50 and above for the year 2017 with a dementia diagnosis. We identify dementia and quantify diagnosis of anxiety, depression and psychosis using validated coding algorithms. We search Medicare claims for antianxiety, antidepressant and antipsychotic medications to determine prescriptions filled.

RESULTS

Anxiety and depression were diagnosed at higher rates in White patients; psychosis at higher rates in Black patients. (P < .001) Females were diagnosed with anxiety, depression and psychosis at higher rates than males (P < .001) and filled more antianxiety and antidepressant medications than males. (P < .001) Black and Other race patients filled more antipsychotic medications for anxiety, depression and psychosis than White patients. (P < .001) Antidepressants were prescribed at higher rates than antianxiety or antipsychotic medications across all patients and diagnoses. Of patients with no neuropsychiatric diagnosis, 11.4% were prescribed an antianxiety medication, 22.8% prescribed an antidepressant and 7.6% prescribed an antipsychotic.

CONCLUSIONS

The high fill rate of antianxiety (benzodiazepine) medications in dementia patients, especially females is a concern. Patients are prescribed psychotropic medications at high rates. This practice may represent potentially inappropriate prescribing. Patient/caregiver education with innovative community outreach and care delivery models may help decrease medication use.

Exploring the Genetic Landscape of Mild Behavioral Impairment as an Early Marker of Cognitive Decline: An Updated Review Focusing on Alzheimer's Disease

The clinical features and pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPSs) in dementia have been extensively studied. However, the genetic architecture and underlying neurobiological mechanisms of NPSs at preclinical stages of cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease (AD) remain largely unknown. Mild behavioral impairment (MBI) represents an at-risk state for incident cognitive impairment and is defined by the emergence of persistent NPSs among non-demented individuals in later life. These NPSs include affective dysregulation, decreased motivation, impulse dyscontrol, abnormal perception and thought content, and social inappropriateness. Accumulating evidence has recently begun to shed more light on the genetic background of MBI, focusing on its potential association with genetic factors related to AD. The Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype and the MS4A locus have been associated with affective dysregulation, ZCWPW1 with social inappropriateness and psychosis, BIN1 and EPHA1 with psychosis, and NME8 with apathy. The association between MBI and polygenic risk scores (PRSs) in terms of AD dementia has been also explored. Potential implicated mechanisms include neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, epigenetic modifications, oxidative stress responses, proteosomal impairment, and abnormal immune responses. In this review, we summarize and critically discuss the available evidence on the genetic background of MBI with an emphasis on AD, aiming to gain insights into the potential underlying neurobiological mechanisms, which till now remain largely unexplored. In addition, we propose future areas of research in this emerging field, with the aim to better understand the molecular pathophysiology of MBI and its genetic links with cognitive decline.

White matter hyperintensities and smaller cortical thickness are associated with neuropsychiatric symptoms in neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular diseases

BACKGROUND

Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) are a core feature of most neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular diseases. White matter hyperintensities and brain atrophy have been implicated in NPS. We aimed to investigate the relative contribution of white matter hyperintensities and cortical thickness to NPS in participants across neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular diseases.

METHODS

Five hundred thirteen participants with one of these conditions, i.e. Alzheimer's Disease/Mild Cognitive Impairment, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Frontotemporal Dementia, Parkinson's Disease, or Cerebrovascular Disease, were included in the study. NPS were assessed using the Neuropsychiatric Inventory - Questionnaire and grouped into hyperactivity, psychotic, affective, and apathy subsyndromes. White matter hyperintensities were quantified using a semi-automatic segmentation technique and FreeSurfer cortical thickness was used to measure regional grey matter loss.

RESULTS

Although NPS were frequent across the five disease groups, participants with frontotemporal dementia had the highest frequency of hyperactivity, apathy, and affective subsyndromes compared to other groups, whilst psychotic subsyndrome was high in both frontotemporal dementia and Parkinson's disease. Results from univariate and multivariate results showed that various predictors were associated with neuropsychiatric subsyndromes, especially cortical thickness in the inferior frontal, cingulate, and insula regions, sex(female), global cognition, and basal ganglia-thalamus white matter hyperintensities.

CONCLUSIONS

In participants with neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular diseases, our results suggest that smaller cortical thickness and white matter hyperintensity burden in several cortical-subcortical structures may contribute to the development of NPS. Further studies investigating the mechanisms that determine the progression of NPS in various neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular diseases are needed.

Neuropsychiatric symptoms influence differently cognitive decline in older women and men

OBJECTIVE

The potential impact of sex on cognitive performance in normal aging and participants with Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been outlined previously. Nevertheless, differences in neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) have been also outlined. We aimed to study a potential association between NPS and cognitive performances according to sex, in older individuals with and without cognitive impairment.

METHODS

Demographic, neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological data from the ADNI and NACC databases were merged into a dataset of 506 participants with healthy cognitive performance, 467 patients with mild cognitive impairment, and 238 patients with AD. Cognitive performance in each group was evaluated according to sex and the presence of NPS.

RESULTS

Based on sex, cognitive performance differed according to clinical stage: in the healthy controls and AD groups, women had better fluency performance, while in the mild cognitive impairment group, women had better working memory and men better oral naming. Regardless of sex, depression showed a negative effect on processing speed in AD. Finally, there was an interaction between sex and NPS in mild cognitive impairment, where women with apathy had better working memory performance, and in AD, women with depression had better fluency performance. The opposite pattern being was observed in men, where men with depression have worse focused attention.

CONCLUSION

Cognitive performance is influenced by sex, yet this influence has different manifestations at normal cognition, MCI or AD. Furthermore, apathy and depression seem to influence differently women and men at different types of cognitive decline.

Relations of neuropsychiatric symptoms with disease stage, sex, and daily function in mild cognitive impairment and dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: A cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

To reveal the relations between neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS), stages of cognitive impairment, sex, and daily function in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia due to Alzheimer's disease (AD).

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted from 2014 to 2021 on 1154 patients. Cognitive function, disease severity, NPS, and daily function were evaluated by Mini-mental State Examination, Clinical Dementia Rating Scale, Neuropsychiatric Inventory, and Activities of Daily Living (ADL) respectively. Multivariate logistic regression and linear regression were used to explore the correlations between NPS, disease stage, sex and ADL.

RESULTS

Affective disturbance displayed the highest prevalence from MCI (52.7%) to severe dementia due to AD (98.2%). Multivariate logistic regression revealed that aberrant motor behavior displayed higher prevalence between groups from MCI to severe dementia due to AD (OR = 4.710, P &lt; 0.001; OR = 3.141, P &lt; 0.001; OR = 2.722, P = 0.002, respectively). In patients with dementia due to AD, hallucination and depression were more prevalent in female (OR = 1.730, P = 0.001; OR = 2.376, P &lt; 0.001, respectively) while male presented higher prevalence in apathy (OR = 0.608, P = 0.002). Linear regression analysis showed that delusion and sleep disturbance were significantly associated with basic ADL across all dementia due to AD stages (delusion: mild: β = 0.113, P = 0.015; moderate: β = 0.159, P = 0.019; severe: β = 0.317, P = 0.018; sleep disturbance: mild: β = 0.164, P &lt; 0.001; moderate: β = 0.167, P = 0.013; severe: β = 0.308, P = 0.025) while anxiety was correlated with instrumental ADL from MCI to moderate dementia due to AD (MCI: β = 0.119, P = 0.006; mild: β = 0.149, P &lt; 0.001; moderate: β = 0.130, P = 0.042).

CONCLUSION

Different subitems of NPS are strongly correlated with sex, stage of cognitive impairment, and ADL.

Factors Associated with Caregiver Burden in Caregivers of Older Patients with Dementia in Indonesia

This cross-sectional study aimed to identify caregiver burden and its determinants in the informal caregivers of older patients with dementia (PWDs) aged ≥ 60 years in Java, Indonesia. Data were collected from 207 caregivers of older PWDs using self-administered questionnaires. The dependent variable was caregiver subjective burden, assessed using the Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI). The independent variables included the socio-demographic characteristics of PWDs and caregivers, the caregiver's perceived social support, and the behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD). Linear regression with a stepwise elimination method was used to identify the factors associated with caregiver burden. This study found that four factors were associated with the caregiver burden, such as the gender of PWDs, the educational level of caregivers, social support, and BPSD (R-squared = 27.78%). Higher burden was reported among the caregivers of female PWDs (β = 5.58; 95%CI = 2.16; 8.99) and PWDs with higher scores of BPSD (β = 0.34; 95%CI = 0.25; 0.43). Meanwhile, the caregivers with higher perceived social support (β = -0.26; 95%CI = -0.42; -0.10) and who completed high school education and above (β = -6.41; 95%CI = -10.07; -2.74) tended to have lower scores of subjective burden. These findings suggest that BPSD management and maintaining the resources of support may provide an opportunity to minimise caregiver burden and improve the quality of life of caregivers and PWDs.

Impact of Behavioral Assessment and Re-Test as Functional Trainings That Modify Survival, Anxiety and Functional Profile (Physical Endurance and Motor Learning) of Old Male and Female 3xTg-AD Mice and NTg Mice with Normal Aging

Longitudinal approaches for disease-monitoring in old animals face survival and frailty limitations, but also assessment and re-test bias on genotype and sex effects. The present work investigated these effects on 56 variables for behavior, functional profile, and biological status of male and female 3xTg-AD mice and NTg counterparts using two designs: (1) a longitudinal design: naïve 12-month-old mice re-tested four months later; and (2) a cross-sectional design: naïve 16-month-old mice compared to those re-tested. The results confirmed the impact as (1) improvement of survival (NTg rested females), variability of gait (3xTg-AD 16-month-old re-tested and naïve females), physical endurance (3xTg-AD re-tested females), motor learning (3xTg-AD and NTg 16-month-old re-tested females), and geotaxis (3xTg-AD naïve 16-month-old males); but (2) worse anxiety (3xTg-AD 16-month-old re-tested males), HPA axis (3xTg-AD 16-month-old re-tested and naïve females) and sarcopenia (3xTg-AD 16-month-old naïve females). Males showed more functional correlations than females. The functional profile, biological status, and their correlation are discussed as relevant elements for AD-pathology. Therefore, repetition of behavioral batteries could be considered training by itself, with some variables sensitive to genotype, sex, and re-test. In the AD-genotype, females achieved the best performance in physical endurance and motor learning, while males showed a deterioration in most studied variables.

Psychotropic drug use among older people with major neurocognitive disorder: a cross-sectional study based on Swedish national registries

AIM

Psychotropic medications include many drugs that may be inappropriate for older individuals with cognitive impairment. In Sweden, many people become registered in the Swedish Dementia Registry when they are diagnosed with major neurocognitive disorder (NCD). In this study, we aim to describe psychotropic drug use and associated factors among older Swedish people with major NCD.

METHODS

This study included 38,251 people ≥ 65 years from the Swedish registry for cognitive/dementia disorders diagnosed during 2007-2017. Drug use was defined as one or more filled prescription(s) recorded in the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register during 1 July to 31 December 2017. Associations between psychotropics and age, sex, diagnosis date, Mini-Mental State Examination score and major NCD subtype were analysed through multiple logistic regression.

RESULTS

We found that 12.0% of the individuals filled at least one prescription for antipsychotics, 22.0% for anxiolytics, 23.0% for sedatives or hypnotics, 43.2% for antidepressants and 56.7% for antidementia drugs. In brief, psychotropic use was associated with female sex, higher age, longer time since diagnosis and specific subtypes of major NCD; the strongest association was found between antipsychotics and Lewy body dementia (odds ratio 2.40, 95% confidence interval 2.04-2.82).

CONCLUSION

Psychotropic drugs were frequently dispensed among older Swedish people with major NCD. The use of antipsychotics and medications with sedative properties warrants concern, especially among those with Lewy body dementia who are severely sensitive to antipsychotics. A more restrictive prescribing pattern regarding these medications might reduce the risk of drug-related problems in this vulnerable group of people.

Neural correlates of the impulse dyscontrol domain of mild behavioral impairment

OBJECTIVES

Agitation and aggression are common in dementia and pre-dementia. The dementia risk syndrome mild behavioral impairment (MBI) includes these symptoms in the impulse dyscontrol domain. However, the neural circuitry associated with impulse dyscontrol in neurodegenerative disease is not well understood. The objective of this work was to investigate if regional micro- and macro-structural brain properties were associated with impulse dyscontrol symptoms in older adults with normal cognition, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer's disease (AD).

METHODS

Clinical, neuropsychiatric, and T1-weighted and diffusion-tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI) data from 80 individuals with and 123 individuals without impulse dyscontrol were obtained from the AD Neuroimaging Initiative. Linear mixed effect models were used to assess if impulse dyscontrol was related to regional DTI and volumetric parameters.

RESULTS

Impulse dyscontrol was present in 17% of participants with NC, 43% with MCI, and 66% with AD. Impulse dyscontrol was associated with: (1) lower fractional anisotropy (FA), and greater mean, axial, and radial diffusivity in the fornix; (2) lesser FA and greater radial diffusivity in the superior fronto-occipital fasciculus; (3) greater axial diffusivity in the cingulum; (4) greater axial and radial diffusivity in the uncinate fasciculus; (5) gray matter atrophy, specifically, lower cortical thickness in the parahippocampal gyrus.

CONCLUSION

Our findings provide evidence that well-established atrophy patterns of AD are prominent in the presence of impulse dyscontrol, even when disease status is controlled for, and possibly in advance of dementia. Our findings support the growing evidence for impulse dyscontrol symptoms as an early manifestation of AD.

Gender differences in geriatric syndromes as mental illness and nervous system diseases in hospitalized Thai older patients

BACKGROUND

Older persons are affected by mental and neurological disorders differently, and gender plays a significant role influencing geriatric disorder differentiation. Accordingly this study characterized gender differences in geriatric syndromes among hospitalized elderly Thai patients.

METHODS

Probabilities of disease occurrence reflecting gender differences were calculated using historical data obtained from the Ministry of Public Health website, Thailand. We selected older patients aged 60 years and above admitted to inpatient departments in public hospitals with mental disorders and nervous system diseases from 2014 to 2018, counting over 160 000 cases each year. Descriptive statistics and odds ratios (ORs) were used to analyse and demonstrate gender differences.

RESULTS

Compared to older females, older males had higher occurrences of four mental disorders revealed by OR and 95% confidence interval (CI) values: substance abuse (5.74, 5.08-6.49), alcohol use (5.66, 5.44-5.89), behavioural problems (1.34, 1.31-1.37), and schizophrenia (1.10, 1.06-1.14). Lower incidences for older males were seen in the same values for three mental disorders: neurotic issues (0.46, 0.44-0.49), mood disorders (0.58, 0.56-0.60), and dementia (0.91, 0.88-0.94). For neurological disorders, men had similar higher incidences for epilepsy (1.67, 1.63-1.72), cerebral palsy (1.61, 1.57-1.65), nervous system inflammatory diseases (1.53, 1.46-1.60), ischaemic attacks (1.42, 1.36-1.48), miscellaneous other nervous disorders (1.20; 1.18-1.22), and Parkinson's disease (1.15, 1.12-1.19). By contrast, older men had lower incidences of multiple sclerosis (0.55, 0.35-0.86), migraines (0.66, 0.62-0.70), and Alzheimer's disease (0.75, 0.71-0.78).

CONCLUSION

Accurate characterization of gender differences in geriatric syndromes can better inform policies for appropriate early detection and prevention, and contribute to the development of treatment and intervention for various issues affecting elderly men and women's health.

Dissecting Sex-Related Cognition between Alzheimer's Disease and Diabetes: From Molecular Mechanisms to Potential Therapeutic Strategies

The brain is a sexually dimorphic organ that implies different functions and structures depending on sex. Current pharmacological approaches against different neurological diseases act distinctly in male and female brains. In all neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), sex-related outcomes regarding pathogenesis, prevalence, and response to treatments indicate that sex differences are important for precise diagnosis and therapeutic strategy. Pathogenesis of AD includes vascular dementia, and in most cases, this is accompanied by metabolic complications with similar features as those assembled in diabetes. This review discusses how AD-associated dementia and diabetes affect cognition in relation to sex difference, as both diseases share similar pathological mechanisms. We highlight potential protective strategies to mitigate amyloid-beta (Aβ) pathogenesis, emphasizing how these drugs act in the male and female brains.

Genealogy of the neurodegenerative diseases based on a meta-analysis of age-stratified incidence data

While the central common feature of the neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) is the accumulation of misfolded proteins, they share other pathogenic mechanisms. However, we miss an explanation for the onset of the NDs. The mechanisms through which genetic mutations, present from conception are expressed only after several decades of life are unknown. We aim to find clues on the complexity of the disease onset trigger of the different NDs expressed in the number of steps of factors related to a disease. We collected brain autopsies on diseased patients with NDs, and found a dynamic increase of the ND multimorbidity with the advance of age. Together with the observation that the NDs accumulate multiple misfolded proteins, and the same misfolded proteins are involved in more than one ND, motivated us to propose a model for a genealogical tree of the NDs. To collect the dynamic data needed to build the tree, we used a Big-data approach that searched automatically epidemiological datasets for age-stratified incidence of NDs. Based on meta-analysis of over 400 datasets, we developed an algorithm that checks whether a ND follows a multistep model, finds the number of steps necessary for the onset of each ND, finds the number of common steps with other NDs and the number of specific steps of each ND, and builds with these findings a parsimony tree of the genealogy of the NDs. The tree discloses three types of NDs: the stem NDs with less than 3 steps; the trunk NDs with 5 to 6 steps; and the crown NDs with more than 7 steps. The tree provides a comprehensive understanding of the relationship across the different NDs, as well as a mathematical framework for dynamic adjustment of the genealogical tree of the NDs with the appearance of new epidemiological studies and the addition of new NDs to the model, thus setting the basis for the search for the identity and order of these steps. Understanding the complexity, or number of steps, of factors related to disease onset trigger is important prior deciding to study single factors for a multiple steps disease.

Gender differences in presentation of behavioral and psychological symptoms in Alzheimer's disease in Taiwan

Objectives: Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) are frequently met in Alzheimer's disease (AD), especially in their late stages. BPSD has been reported to be associated with gender for its biological characteristics and severity of dementia. We aimed to investigate the gender differences in presentation of BPSD in AD in Taiwan.Methods: We recruited patients with clinically diagnosed AD by National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINCDS) - Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders Association (ADRDA) criteria. Demographic data and annual psychometrics, including Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) and Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI), consisting sub-items of delusions, hallucinations, aggression, depression, anxiety, elation, apathy, disinhibition, irritability, aberrant motor, nighttime behavior and eating were all administered to evaluate BPSD. Apolipoprotein E (APOE) allele was genotyped for each recruited AD subject. Differences between gender and variables were compared and significant NPI sub-items associated with gender were determined, while linear regression analyses were determined as the independent factor for BPSD.Results: In total, 280 female and 180 male AD patients were recruited into statistical analyses. Males had longer education duration and higher MMSE scores than females. Female had higher presence of delusion and disinhibition. In linear regression, being female and CDR stage were two independent factors for delusion (for female, B = 0.95, 95% CI = 0.17-1.73, p = 0.017) and disinhibition (for female, B = 0.49, 95% CI = 0.08-0.90, p = 0.019) after adjusting for confounding factors.Conclusions: The presentation of delusion and disinhibition in BPSD is associated with the female gender and staging of AD. Disinhibition was not necessarily associated with late stage of AD.

Abnormal Sleep Behaviours Across the Spectrum of Alzheimer's Disease Severity: Influence of APOE Genotypes and Lewy Bodies

BACKGROUND

The Apolipoprotein (APOE) ε4 allele is a well-known risk factor for Alzheimer's Disease (AD), and sleep disturbances are commonly associated with AD. However, few studies have investigated the relationship between APOE ε4 and abnormal sleep patterns (N+) in AD.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship between APOE genotype, Lewy body pathology, and abnormal sleep patterns in a large group of subjects with known AD load evaluated upon autopsy.

METHOD

Data from 2,368 cases obtained from the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Centre database were categorized as follows: Braak Stage V/VI and CERAD frequent neuritic plaques as high load AD, Braak Stage III/IV and moderate CERAD as intermediate load AD, and Braak Stage 0/I/II and infrequent CERAD as no to low load AD. Cases discrepant between the two measures were discarded.

RESULTS

Disrupted sleep was more frequent in males (42.4%) compared to females (35.1%), and in carriers (42.3%) as opposed to non-carriers (36.5%) of ε4. Amongst female subjects with high AD load and Lewy body pathology, homozygous (ε4/ε4) carriers experienced disrupted sleep more often compared with heterozygous (ε4/x) or non-carriers of ε4. Such recessive, gender-specific, and Lewy body association is reminiscent of the ε4 effect on psychosis in AD. However, such association was lost after adjusting for covariates. In subjects with no to low AD pathology, female ε4 carriers had significantly more nighttime disturbances than non-carriers; this effect is independent of the presence of Lewy body pathology.

CONCLUSION

The influence of APOE ε4 on sleep disturbances is dependent on gender and severity of AD load.

Apolipoprotein E and affective symptoms in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

APOE status has been associated to affective symptoms in cognitively impaired subjects, with conflicting results.

METHODS

Databases CINAHL, Embase, PsychINFO and PubMed were searched for studies evaluating APOE genotype with affective symptoms in MCI and AD dementia. Symptoms were meta-analyzed separately and possible sources of heterogeneity were examined.

RESULTS

Fifty-three abstracts fulfilled the eligibility criteria. No association was found between the individual symptoms and APOE ε4 carriership or zygosity. For depression and anxiety, only pooled unadjusted estimates showed positive associations with between-study heterogeneity, which could be explained by variation in study design, setting and way of symptom assessment.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no evidence that APOE ε4 carriership or zygosity is associated with the presence of depression, anxiety, apathy, agitation, irritability or sleep disturbances in cognitively impaired subjects. Future research should shift its focus from this single polymorphism to a more integrated view of other biological factors.

Development of Regional Disparities in Alzheimer's Disease Mortality in the Slovak Republic from 1996 to 2015

Alzheimer's disease-subsequently as AD in the text-represents a chronic neurodegenerative disease discussed very often in the recent period. It involves the G30 diagnosis expressing exactly AD and also the F00 diagnosis epitomising dementia in AD. The Slovak Republic has a very various population in terms of the disparities of the population localisation. The analysis is executed on the basement of the standardised mortality rate. It is calculated for the individual districts of the Slovak Republic to get a detailed spatial view and for each year of the explored period from 1996 to 2015 to get a time development. It has a considerably rising tendency. Therefore, the regional disparities of the standardised mortality rate of AD are analysed from an angle of view of its similarity, by its measurement in a form of a Euclidean distance approach. The results of the analysis offer the heat maps as the distance matrices in a graphic form and the maps of the individual districts too. These outputs reveal a very heterogeneous structure of the standardised mortality rate. Another graphic outcome demonstrates a distribution of its values among the districts throughout the whole Slovak Republic for the whole observed period. The results offer a comparison among the districts of the Slovak Republic too. The highest values and also the lowest values are reached in the different districts for the both sexes. Even, one district reaches the opposite result for the individual sexes. The age structure of the deceased population on the G30 diagnosis is also executed and the extreme values from an angle of a view of the districts are picked up. There are evident high differentiations between the individual districts of the Slovak Republic. The conclusion section involves the several key points and the potential suggestions for further research.

Neurosteroid Metabolites of Gonadal Steroid Hormones in Neuroprotection: Implications for Sex Differences in Neurodegenerative Disease

Gonadal steroid hormones are neurotrophic and neuroprotective. These effects are modulated by local metabolism of the hormones within the brain. Such control is necessary to maintain normal function, as several signaling pathways that are activated by gonadal steroid hormones in the brain can also become dysregulated in disease. Metabolites of the gonadal steroid hormones—particularly 3α-hydroxy, 5α-reduced neurosteroids—are synthesized in the brain and can act through different mechanisms from their parent steroids. These metabolites may provide a mechanism for modulating the responses to their precursor hormones, thereby providing a regulatory influence on cellular responses. In addition, there is evidence that the 3α-hydroxy, 5α-reduced neurosteroids are neuroprotective in their own right, and therefore may contribute to the overall protection conferred by their precursors. In this review article, the rapidly growing body of evidence supporting a neuroprotective role for this class of neurosteroids will be considered, including a discussion of potential mechanisms that may be involved. In addition, we explore the hypothesis that differences between males and females in local neurosteroid production may contribute to sex differences in the development of neurodegenerative disease.

Epidemiological Investigation of Type 2 Diabetes and Alzheimer's Disease in a Pakistani Population

The epidemic of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and the possibility of it contributing to the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD) have become important health concerns worldwide and in Pakistan, where the co-occurrence of T2DM and AD is becoming more frequent. To gain insights on this phenomenon, a cross-sectional study was initiated. We recruited and interviewed 820 research participants from four cities in Pakistan: 250 controls, 450 T2DM, 100 AD, and 20 with both diseases. Significant differences between groups were observed for age (p < 0.0001), urban vs. rural locality (p = 0.0472) and residing near industrial areas. The average HbA1c (%) level was 10.68 ± 2.34 in the T2DM group, and females had a lower level than males (p = 0.003). In the AD group, significant relationships existed between education and family history. Overall, the results suggest that T2DM and AD were associated with both socio-demographic and environmental factors in Pakistani participants. Detailed molecular investigations are underway in our laboratory to decipher the differential genetic pathways of the two diseases to address their increasing prevalence in this developing nation.

Gender differences in the protective effects of green tea against amnestic mild cognitive impairment in the elderly Han population

BACKGROUND

Gender differences may contribute to variances in the potential protective effects of tea against cognitive impairment in the elderly.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between different types of tea consumption and the risk of amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) along gender lines.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted with reference to 20 communities in China. The sample population included elderly participants aged 60 years or older. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect each participant's general demographic information. Trained psychologists administrated the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) to assess participants' cognitive function. An attending psychiatrist evaluated each participant's cognitive function. Finally, data from 2,131 participants were analyzed to assess the association.

RESULTS

With regard to male participants, the percentage of green tea consumption was higher in the normal control group than in the aMCI group (X2=4.64, P=0.031). Logistic regression analysis showed that green tea consumption reduced the risk of aMCI in male participants (OR=0.657, P=0.019), and this finding was highly significant in males aged under 70 years (OR=0.376, P=0.002). Regarding female participants across every age group, the results indicated that tea consumption failed to significantly decrease the risk of aMCI (P>0.05). Unlike green tea, black tea and oolong tea were not correlated with a reduced risk of aMCI in terms of gender or age group. Multiple linear regression analysis also revealed that age, years of education, and green tea consumption (B=0.996, P=0.000) were associated with MoCA and MMSE scores, though only in male participants.

CONCLUSION

Green tea consumption showed a protective effect against aMCI in males but not in females, particularly in males aged <70 years. However, black tea and oolong tea failed to show any protective effect in either males or females.

Influence of APOE and RNF219 on Behavioral and Cognitive Features of Female Patients Affected by Mild Cognitive Impairment or Alzheimer's Disease

The risk for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is associated with the presence of the 𝜀4 allele of Apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene and, recently, with a novel genetic variant of the RNF219 gene. This study aimed at evaluating interactions between APOE-𝜀4 and RNF219/G variants in the modulation of behavioral and cognitive features of two cohorts of patients suffering from mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or AD. We enrolled a total of 173 female MCI or AD patients (83 MCI; 90 AD). Subjects were screened with a comprehensive set of neuropsychological evaluations and genotyped for the APOE and RNF219 polymorphic variants. Analysis of covariance was performed to assess the main and interaction effects of APOE and RNF219 genotypes on the cognitive and behavioral scores. The analysis revealed that the simultaneous presence of APOE-𝜀4 and RNF219/G variants results in significant effects on specific neuropsychiatric scores in MCI and AD patients. In MCI patients, RNF219 and APOE variants worked together to impact the levels of anxiety negatively. Similarly, in AD patients, the RNF219 variants were found to be associated with increased anxiety levels. Our data indicate a novel synergistic activity APOE and RNF219 in the modulation of behavioral traits of female MCI and AD patients.

Gender and Pathology-Specific Effect of Apolipoprotein E Genotype on Psychosis in Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Symptoms of psychosis is one of the common clinical manifestations of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the pathophysiology behind psychosis is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype, Lewy body pathology, and psychosis in AD.

METHOD

The data was obtained from the National Alzheimer's disease Coordinating Centre (NACC), using the Uniform Data Set and the Neuropathology Data Set. Subjects with frequent neuritic plaque on CERAD, and Braak Stage of V or VI, corresponding to high probability of AD based on the NIA-AA Regan criteria were included in the analysis.

RESULTS

Subjects with two copies of ε4 alleles were significantly more likely to develop psychosis, both delusions and/or hallucinations, during the course of their illness. This association was gender-specific, only reaching significance in females. Our findings further showed that presence of two copies of ε4 allele was positively associated with the formation of Lewy bodies. Only in females with Lewy bodies was the effect of two copies of ε4 allele significant, reaching an odd ratio of 4.5.

CONCLUSION

The APOE ε4 allele has a female-specific effect in inducing psychosis in AD through the formation of Lewy bodies.

Application of Metabolomics in Alzheimer's Disease

Progress toward the development of efficacious therapies for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is halted by a lack of understanding early underlying pathological mechanisms. Systems biology encompasses several techniques including genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. Metabolomics is the newest omics platform that offers great potential for the diagnosis and prognosis of neurodegenerative diseases as an individual’s metabolome reflects alterations in genetic, transcript, and protein profiles and influences from the environment. Advancements in the field of metabolomics have demonstrated the complexity of dynamic changes associated with AD progression underscoring challenges with the development of efficacious therapeutic interventions. Defining systems-level alterations in AD could provide insights into disease mechanisms, reveal sex-specific changes, advance the development of biomarker panels, and aid in monitoring therapeutic efficacy, which should advance individualized medicine. Since metabolic pathways are largely conserved between species, metabolomics could improve the translation of preclinical research conducted in animal models of AD into humans. A summary of recent developments in the application of metabolomics to advance the AD field is provided below.

Gender's Effects to the Early Symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease in 5 Asian Countries

BACKGROUND

Asia has the greatest population and more patients with dementia in the world. Early recognition of clinical symptoms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is crucial for dementia care. In order to foster collaboration in AD care, a uniformed manner to report the early clinical symptoms of AD is necessary.

METHODS

We have recruited clinically diagnosed patients with AD at their very mild stage with Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) 0.5 in Taiwan, Japan, China, Philippines, and Singapore. Demographic characteristics and psychometrics including Ascertain of Dementia-8 (AD8) questionnaire were administrated to collect and report the clinical presentation in these countries.

RESULTS

In total, 713 clinically diagnosed patients with AD at very mild stage, CDR 0.5, have been recruited from these 5 countries. "Repeats questions, stories, or statements" were consistently the frequently reported symptom across these countries. Taiwan, China, and Singapore have the higher AD8 total score compared to that in Japan and Philippines. Japan and Philippines have the gender-related differences in clinical presentation of early AD.

CONCLUSION

Difficulties in using small trouble appliance and in handling complicated financial affairs were frequently reported in Japan female, compared to male, patients with AD. Identifying the clinical symptom of AD and the gender-related issues would be crucial in the dementia care in Asia.

Anesthesia/Surgery Induces Cognitive Impairment in Female Alzheimer's Disease Transgenic Mice

Anesthesia and/or surgery may promote Alzheimer's disease (AD) by accelerating its neuropathogenesis. Other studies showed different findings. However, the potential sex difference among these studies has not been well considered, and it is unknown whether male or female AD patients are more vulnerable to develop postoperative cognitive dysfunction. We therefore set out to perform a proof of concept study to determine whether anesthesia and surgery can have different effects in male and female AD transgenic (Tg) mice, and in female AD Tg plus Cyclophilin D knockout (CypD KO) mice. The mice received an abdominal surgery under sevoflurane anesthesia (anesthesia/surgery). Fear Conditioning System (FCS) was used to assess the cognitive function. Hippocampal levels of synaptic marker postsynaptic density 95 (PSD-95) and synaptophysin (SVP) were measured using western blot analysis. Here we showed that the anesthesia/surgery decreased the freezing time in context test of FCS at 7 days after the anesthesia/surgery in female, but not male, mice. The anesthesia/surgery reduced hippocampus levels of synaptic marker PSD-95 and SVP in female, but not male, mice. The anesthesia/surgery induced neither reduction in freezing time in FCS nor decreased hippocampus levels of PSD-95 and SVP in the AD Tg plus CypD KO mice. These data suggest that the anesthesia/surgery induced a sex-dependent cognitive impairment and reduction in hippocampus levels of synaptic markers in AD Tg mice, potentially via a mitochondria-associated mechanism. These findings could promote clinical investigations to determine whether female AD patients are more vulnerable to the development of postoperative cognitive dysfunction.