Benzene as a Chemical Hazard in Processed Foods

Citizens protein project: A self-funded, transparent, and concerning report on analysis of popular protein supplements sold in the Indian market

Protein powders, including those containing herbal and dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and other natural or synthetic ingredients, can be associated with hepatotoxicity. Protein supplements are often mislabeled and deceptive in their contents. In this self-funded transparent study, we extensively analyzed popular protein supplements in India to identify potential hepatotoxic substances based on industrial standards. All products underwent extensive analysis, including total protein content, fungal aflatoxin detection, pesticide residue estimation, heavy metal quantification, steroid detection, and complete organic and inorganic profiling, according to industry standards. Most protein supplements did not meet the labeled and advertised protein content, while certain brands surpassed the stated levels, raising concerns about potential "protein/amino-spiking." In addition, the major brands contained detectable fungal toxins and pesticide residues. Furthermore, many major formulations contained harmful heavy metals such as lead and arsenic, and some featured hepatoxic herbal extracts, particularly green tea extract, turmeric, Garcinia cambogia, and Ashwagandha. Indian-made products were inferior to those manufactured by multinational companies. The presence of various potentially toxic compounds, such as cycloheptatriene, benzene derivatives, toluene, and isopropyl alcohol, within a nonstandardized and unregulated diverse ingredient mix added to the overall concern. We demonstrate that the protein-based herbal and dietary supplement industry requires stringent scrutiny, regulation, and basic safety studies before being marketed. Manufacturers must consider reducing "ingredient complexities" of their protein powders to prevent adverse interactions between herbal and nonherbal components in consumers. Manufacturers must avoid using known toxic ingredients to reduce the avoidable disease burden within the public community.

Benzoates and in situ formed benzene in food supplements and risk assessment

Upward trend in the use of food supplements urged the assessment of their safety. Eighty-eight liquid herbal supplements collected in Novi Sad (Serbia) in 2018 (36 samples) and 2021 (52 samples) were analysed for the presence of benzoates and sorbates (HPLC-UV) and benzene (HS-GC/MS). Benzoic acid varied from 599 to 9253 mg/kg and sorbic acid between 185 and 1658 mg/kg. The acceptable daily intake of sorbic acid was not reached, but in case of benzoic acid, it was exceeded by 5.3% of the samples. The presence of benzene was confirmed in 41.2% of benzoate preserved supplements (0.9-51.7 µg/kg). Benzene exposure revealed no health concern: maximum hazard quotients ranged from 0.39% (toddlers) to 0.84% (adolescents); minimum margins of exposure were between 35,680 (adolescents) and 77,419 (toddlers); estimates of lifetime cancer risk did not reach one extra cancer case per 100 000 persons. However, measures to mitigate benzene presence in food should be considered.

Formation, migration, derivation, and generation mechanism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during frying

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are carcinogenic and lipophilic, which can be found in frying system. This review summarized the formation, migration and derivation for PAHs, hypothesized the possible mechanism for PAHs generation during frying and presented the research prospects. Some factors like high oil consumption, high temperature, long time and oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids promoted the formation of PAHs and the presence of antioxidants inhibited the PAHs formation. The effect of proteins and carbohydrates in foods on the formation of PAHs is inconclusive. The formed PAHs were migrated into food and air. Moreover, some PAHs transformed into more toxic PAHs-derivatives during frying. The generation of PAHs may be related to low-barrier free radical-mediated reaction and the unsaturated hydrocarbons may be precursors of PAHs during frying. In future, the isotope tracer technology and on-line detection may be applied to discover intermediates and provide clues for studying PAHs generation mechanisms.

Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk

Commonly consumed foods and beverages can contain chemicals with reported carcinogenic activity in rodent models. Moreover, exposures to some of these substances have been associated with increased cancer risks in humans. Food-borne carcinogens span a range of chemical classes and can arise from natural or anthropogenic sources, as well as form endogenously. Important considerations include the mechanism(s) of action (MoA), their relevance to human biology, and the level of exposure in diet. The MoAs of carcinogens have been classified as either DNA-reactive (genotoxic), involving covalent reaction with nuclear DNA, or epigenetic, involving molecular and cellular effects other than DNA reactivity. Carcinogens are generally present in food at low levels, resulting in low daily intakes, although there are some exceptions. Carcinogens of the DNA-reactive type produce effects at lower dosages than epigenetic carcinogens. Several food-related DNA-reactive carcinogens, including aflatoxins, aristolochic acid, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene oxide, are recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as causes of human cancer. Of the epigenetic type, the only carcinogen considered to be associated with increased cancer in humans, although not from low-level food exposure, is dioxin (TCDD). Thus, DNA-reactive carcinogens in food represent a much greater risk than epigenetic carcinogens.

Aroma compounds and consumer acceptability of soybean paste fermented by lactobacilli

Consumption of soybean-based foods is affected by the flavor of the legume; due to the presence of undesirable compounds called "beany flavors". To solve this problem, the influence of solid state fermentation by lactobacilli on the production of volatile compounds in soybean paste was determined. The volatile's production was measured by gas chromatography. Forty compounds were identified in the different soybean pastes studied. The results showed that fermentation stimulates the production of desirable volatile compounds in foods such as ketones (22-75%) and decreased unpleasant compounds (10-84%).The consumers acceptance study showed that a group of participants (30% approximately) preferred the fermented samples associated with sweet and acid aroma like yogurt. In conclusion, the fermentation positively influences the generation of desirable volatile compounds and completely reduces hexanal in one sample. Therefore, fermentation with the studied strains is a valid strategy to modify the aroma profile of a soybean-based food matrix.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-021-05210-5.

Sodium Benzoate—Harmfulness and Potential Use in Therapies for Disorders Related to the Nervous System: A Review

Currently, due to the large number of reports regarding the harmfulness of food additives, more and more consumers follow the so-called “clean label” trend, i.e., prefer and choose the least-processed food products. One of the compounds known as a preservative with a high safety profile is sodium benzoate. While some studies show that it can be used to treat conditions such as depression, pain, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases, others report its harmfulness. For example, it was found to cause mutagenic effects, generate oxidative stress, disrupt hormones, and reduce fertility. Due to such disparate results, the purpose of this study is to comprehensively discuss the safety profile of sodium benzoate and its potential use in neurodegenerative diseases, especially in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD), and pain relief.

Diet dependent impact of benzoate on diabetes and obesity in mice

The gut microbiota contributes to mammalian host biology by supplying metabolites from nutrients and pro-inflammatory molecules. We have recently shown that urinary hippurate is associated with reduced risk of obesity, increased gut microbiome diversity and gene richness, and functional modules for microbial production of its precursor benzoate. Obese mice infused with hippurate exhibit profound alterations of glucose homeostasis. Here, we tested the biological effects of chronic administration of benzoate on cardiometabolic phenotypes in lean and obese mice. Benzoate induced glucose intolerance, enhanced insulin secretion, increased adiposity and stimulated liver inflammation in lean mice fed control diet. In contrast, in condition of obesity and diabetes induced by high fat diet feeding, benzoate infusion resulted in reduction of glucose intolerance, stimulation of both glucose-induced insulin secretion and β-cell proliferation, and reduction of liver triglyceride and collagen accumulation. These results combined with those previously obtained in mice treated with hippurate underline the importance of the benzoate-hippurate pathway in cardiometabolic diseases and pave the way to diagnostic and therapeutic solutions.

Antimicrobial Activity of Nanoencapsulated Essential Oils of Tasmannia lanceolata, Backhousia citriodora and Syzygium anisatum against Weak-Acid Resistant Zygosaccharomyces bailii in Clear Apple Juice

The anti-yeast activity of oil-in-water encapsulated nanoemulsion containing individual or a combination of the three essential oils of Tasmanian pepper leaf (Tasmannia lanceolata), lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora), and anise myrtle (Syzygium anisatum) against weak-acid resistant Zygosaccharomyces bailii in clear apple juice was investigated. The effectiveness of the shelf-life extension of Z. bailii-spiked (1 × 103 CFU/mL) clear apple juice was evaluated and compared between natural (essential oils) and synthetic (sodium benzoate) antimicrobial agents. Essential oils showed an immediate reduction in the Z. bailii cell population at day-0 and exerted a fungicidal activity at day-4 of storage, with no further noticeable growth at the end of the experiment (day-28). At lower concentrations, Tasmanian pepper leaf oil of 0.0025% had >6 log CFU/mL at day-12 of storage. For lemon myrtle essential oils, the yeast population reached >6 log CFU/mL at day-24 and day-20 for concentrations of 0.02% and 0.01%, respectively. The fungicidal activity of Tasmanian pepper leaf oil reduced from 0.005% to 0.0025% v/v when mixed at a ratio of 1:1 with anise myrtle oil. The results of the present study suggest that these three native Australian herbs have the potential to be used in the beverage industry by controlling Zygosaccharomyces bailii in clear apple juice products.

Production of Gasolines and Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: From Fossil Raw Materials to Green Processes

The properties and the applications of the main monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, styrene, and the three xylene isomers) and the industrial processes for their manufacture from fossil raw materials are summarized. Potential ways for their production from renewable sources with thermo-catalytic processes are described and discussed in detail. The perspectives of the future industrial organic chemistry in relation to the production of high-octane bio-gasolines and monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as renewable chemical intermediates are discussed.

In Utero Maternal Benzene Exposure Predisposes to the Metabolic Imbalance in the Offspring

Environmental chemicals play a significant role in the development of metabolic disorders, especially when exposure occurs early in life. We have recently demonstrated that benzene exposure, at concentrations relevant to cigarette smoke, induces a severe metabolic imbalance in a sex-specific manner affecting male but not female mice. However, the roles of benzene in the development of aberrant metabolic outcomes following gestational exposure, remain largely unexplored. In this study, we exposed pregnant C57BL/6JB dams to benzene at 50 ppm or filtered air for 6 h/day from gestational day 0.5 (GD0.5) through GD21 and studied male and female offspring metabolic phenotypes in their adult life. While no changes in body weight or body composition were observed between groups, 4-month-old male and female offspring exhibited reduced parameters of energy homeostasis (VO2, VCO2, and heat production). However, only male offspring from benzene-exposed dams were glucose intolerant and insulin resistant at this age. By 6 months of age, both male and female offspring exhibited marked glucose intolerance however, only male offspring developed severe insulin resistance. This effect was accompanied by elevated insulin secretion and increased beta-cell mass only in male offspring. In support, Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance, the index of insulin resistance was elevated only in male but not in female offspring. Regardless, both male and female offspring exhibited a considerable increase in hepatic gene expression associated with inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Thus, gestational benzene exposure can predispose offspring to increased susceptibility to the metabolic imbalance in adulthood with differential sensitivity between sexes.

Acarbose protects from central and peripheral metabolic imbalance induced by benzene exposure

Benzene is a well-known human carcinogen that is one of the major components of air pollution. Sources of benzene in ambient air include cigarette smoke, e-cigarettes vaping, and evaporation of benzene containing petrol processes. While the carcinogenic effects of benzene exposure have been well studied, less is known about the metabolic effects of benzene exposure. We show that chronic exposure to benzene at low levels induces a severe metabolic imbalance in a sex-specific manner, and is associated with hypothalamic inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Benzene exposure rapidly activates hypothalamic ER stress and neuroinflammatory responses in male mice, while pharmacological inhibition of ER stress response by inhibiting IRE1α-XBP1 pathway significantly alleviates benzene-induced glial inflammatory responses. Additionally, feeding mice with Acarbose, a clinically available anti-diabetes drug, protected against benzene induced central and peripheral metabolic imbalance. Acarbose imitates the slowing of dietary carbohydrate digestion, suggesting that choosing a diet with a low glycemic index might be a potential strategy for reducing the negative metabolic effect of chronic exposure to benzene for smokers or people living/working in urban environments with high concentrations of exposure to automobile exhausts.

Ayurvedic formulations containing benzoic and ascorbic acids as additives: benzene formation during storage and impact of additives on quality parameters

OBJECTIVES

Ayurvedic formulations are becoming the prior choice of people as health care supplements. The increasing demand for these formulations has led to extensive development of Ayurvedic pharmaceutical industries worldwide. The reaction between the preservatives (sodium benzoates and ascorbic acid) used in these formulations could generate benzene. Benzene is classified as class-1 human carcinogen and responsible for various short and long term health effects.

METHODS

In this study, 25 formulations (containing ascorbic acid and sodium benzoate) of various manufacturers available as over the counter products were obtained and their benzene content were determined using gas chromatograph with flame ionization detector.

RESULTS

The result showed that 64% of the formulations were free from benzene contamination whereas 36% of formulations were found to be contaminated with benzene. A simple, less time-consuming, economic, and validated gas chromatographic method for estimation of benzene in Ayurvedic formulations was also developed successfully in present study.

CONCLUSIONS

The data revealed that the level of benzene was within permissible limits, yet the presence of a carcinogen in the marketed formulations intended for internal use is an alarming situation.

Urinary trans-trans muconic acid (exposure biomarker to benzene) and hippuric acid (exposure biomarker to toluene) concentrations in Mexican women living in high-risk scenarios of air pollution

This study aimed to determine t,t-muconic acid (t,t-MA; exposure biomarker for benzene) and hippuric acid (HA; exposure biomarker for toluene) concentrations in the urine of women living in Mexico. In a cross-sectional study, apparently healthy women (n = 104) were voluntarily recruited from localities with a high risk of air pollution; t,t-MA and HA in urine were quantified using a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique. Mean urinary levels of t,t-MA ranged from 680 to 1,310 μg/g creatinine. Mean values of HA ranged from 0.38 to 0.87 g/g creatinine. In conclusion, compared to data recently reported in literature, we found high urinary levels of t,t-MA and HA in assessed women participating in this study. We therefore deem the implementation of a strategy aimed at the reduction of exposure as a necessary measure for the evaluated communities.

The Challenges of Eliminating or Substituting Antimicrobial Preservatives in Foods

Consumers' criteria for evaluating food safety have evolved recently from considering the food's potential to cause immediate physical harm to considering the potential long-term effects that consumption of artificial ingredients, including antimicrobial preservatives, would have on health. As bacteriostatic and bactericidal agents to prevent microbial spoilage, antimicrobials not only extend shelf life, but they also enhance the product's safety. Antimicrobials and their levels that may be used in foods are specified by regulatory agencies. This review addresses the safety of antimicrobials and the potential consequences of removing those that are chemically synthesized or replacing them with antimicrobials from so-called natural sources. Such changes can affect the microbiological safety and spoilage of food as well as reduce shelf life, increase wastage, and increase the occurrence of foodborne illnesses.

Benzaldehyde in cherry flavour as a precursor of benzene formation in beverages

During sampling and analysis of alcohol-free beverages for food control purposes, a comparably high contamination of benzene (up to 4.6μg/L) has been detected in cherry-flavoured products, even when they were not preserved using benzoic acid (which is a known precursor of benzene formation). There has been some speculation in the literature that formation may occur from benzaldehyde, which is contained in natural and artificial cherry flavours. In this study, model experiments were able to confirm that benzaldehyde does indeed degrade to benzene under heating conditions, and especially in the presence of ascorbic acid. Analysis of a large collective of authentic beverages from the market (n=170) further confirmed that benzene content is significantly correlated to the presence of benzaldehyde (r=0.61, p<0.0001). In the case of cherry flavoured beverages, industrial best practices should include monitoring for benzene. Formulations containing either benzoic acid or benzaldehyde in combination with ascorbic acid should be avoided.