Intragastric Application of Aspirin, Clopidogrel, Cilostazol, and BPC 157 in Rats: Platelet Aggregation and Blood Clot

Clopidogrel protects against gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity through targeting oxidative stress, apoptosis, and coagulation pathways

Gentamicin (Genta)-induced nephrotoxicity poses a significant clinical challenge due to its detrimental effects on kidney function. Clopidogrel (Clop), an antiplatelet drug known for its ability to prevent blood clots by inhibiting platelet aggregation, also has potential effects on oxidative stress and cell death. This study investigates Clop's protective role against Genta-induced nephrotoxicity, emphasizing the importance of the coagulation cascade. The 32 adult male albino rats were randomly assigned to four groups of eight (n = 8). The first group received only the vehicle. Genta was injected intraperitoneally at 100 mg/kg/day for 8 days in the second group. Groups 3 and 4 received oral Clop at 10 and 20 mg/kg/day for 1 week before Genta delivery and throughout the experiment. Renal tissue showed renal function tests, oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory cytokines, apoptotic markers, coagulation profile, and fibrin expression. Clop improved Genta-induced kidney function and histopathology. Clop substantially reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress indicators, pro-apoptotic proteins, and fibrin protein. Clop also significantly boosted renal tissue anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic protein expression. Genta-induced nephrotoxicity involves oxidative stress, apoptosis, and coagulation system activation, according to studies. This study underscores that Genta-induced nephrotoxicity is associated with oxidative stress, apoptosis, and activation of the coagulation system. Clop's protective effects on nephrons are attributed to its anticoagulant, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties, presenting it as a promising therapeutic strategy against Genta-induced kidney damage.

Multifunctionality and Possible Medical Application of the BPC 157 Peptide-Literature and Patent Review

BPC 157, known as the "Body Protection Compound", is a pentadecapeptide isolated from human gastric juice that demonstrated its pleiotropic beneficial effects in various preclinical models mimicking medical conditions, such as tissue injury, inflammatory bowel disease, or even CNS disorders. Unlike many other drugs, BPC 157 has a desirable safety profile, since only a few side effects have been reported following its administration. Nevertheless, this compound was temporarily banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 2022 (it is not currently listed as banned by the WADA). However, it has not been approved for use in standard medicine by the FDA and other global regulatory authorities due to the absence of sufficient and comprehensive clinical studies confirming its health benefits in humans. In this review, we summarize information on the biological activities of BPC 157, with particular reference to its mechanism of action and probable toxicity. This generated the attention of experts, as BPC 157 has been offered for sale on many websites. We also present recent interest in BPC 157 as reflected in a number of patent applications and granted patents.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 as Therapy After Surgical Detachment of the Quadriceps Muscle from Its Attachments for Muscle-to-Bone Reattachment in Rats

BACKGROUND

This is a novel rat study using native peptide therapy, focused on reversing quadriceps muscle-to-bone detachment to reattachment and stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 per-oral therapy for shared muscle healing and function restoration.

METHODS

Pharmacotherapy recovering various muscle, tendon, ligament, and bone lesions, and severed junctions (i.e., myotendinous junction), per-oral in particular (BPC 157/kg/day 10 µg, 10 ng), provides muscle-to-bone reattachment after quadriceps muscle detachment, both complete (rectus muscle) and partial (vastus muscles).

RESULTS

Immediately post-injury, and at 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 14, 21, 28, 60, and 90 days post-injury, quadriceps muscle-to-bone detachment showed definitive healing failure (impaired walking and permanent knee flexure). Contrarily, macro/microscopic, ultrasonic, magnetic resonance, biomechanical, and functional assessments revealed that BPC 157 therapy recovering effects for all time points were consistent. All parameters of the walking pattern fully improved, and soon after detachment and therapy application, muscle approached the bone, leaving a minimal gap (on ultrasonic assessment), and leg contracture was annihilated. The healing process occurs immediately after detachment from both sides: the muscle and the bone. The reattachment fibers from the ends of the muscle could be traced into the new bone formed at the surface (note, at day 3 post-detachment, increased mesenchymal cells occurred with periosteum reactivation). Consequently, at 3 months, the form was stable, and the balance between the muscle and bone was the following: well-organized bone, newly formed as more cortical bone providing a narrower bone marrow space, and the muscle and mature fibers were oriented parallel to the bone axis and were in close contact with bone.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, to achieve quadriceps muscle-to-bone reattachment, the BPC 157 therapy reversing course acts from the beginning, resolving an otherwise insurmountable deleterious course.

New studies with stable gastric pentadecapeptide protecting gastrointestinal tract. significance of counteraction of vascular and multiorgan failure of occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome in cytoprotection/organoprotection

Since the early 1990s, when Robert's and Szabo's cytoprotection concept had already been more than one decade old, but still not implemented in therapy, we suggest the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 as the most relevant mediator of the cytoprotection concept. Consequently, it can translate stomach and gastrointestinal mucosal maintenance, epithelium, and endothelium cell protection to the therapy of other tissue healing (organoprotection), easily applicable, as native and stable in human gastric juice for more than 24 h. These overwhelm current clinical evidence (i.e., ulcerative colitis, phase II, no side effects, and no lethal dose (LD1) in toxicology studies), as BPC 157 therapy effectively combined various tissue healing and lesions counteraction. BPC 157 cytoprotection relevance and vascular recovery, activation of collateral pathways, membrane stabilizer, eye therapy, wound healing capability, brain-gut and gut-brain functioning, tumor cachexia counteraction, muscle, tendon, ligament, and bone disturbances counteraction, and the heart disturbances, myocardial infarction, heart failure, pulmonary hypertension, arrhythmias, and thrombosis counteraction appeared in the recent reviews. Here, as concept resolution, we review the counteraction of advanced Virchow triad circumstances by activation of the collateral rescuing pathways, depending on injury, activated azygos vein direct blood flow delivery, to counteract occlusion/occlusion-like syndromes starting with the context of alcohol-stomach lesions. Counteraction of major vessel failure (congested inferior caval vein and superior mesenteric vein, collapsed azygos vein, collapsed abdominal aorta) includes counteraction of the brain (intracerebral and intraventricular hemorrhage), heart (congestion, severe arrhythmias), lung (hemorrhage), and congestion and lesions in the liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract, intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal and caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, and thrombosis, peripherally and centrally.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and Intestinal Anastomoses Therapy in Rats-A Review

By introducing the healing of many distinctive anastomoses by BPC 157 therapy, this review practically deals with the concept of the resection and reconnection of the hollow parts of the gastrointestinal tract as one of the cornerstones of visceral surgery. In principle, the healing of quite distinctive anastomoses itself speaks for applied BPC 157 therapy, in particular, as a way in which the therapy of anastomoses can be successfully approached and carried out. Some of the anastomoses implicated were esophagogastric, colocolonic, jejunoileal, and ileoileal anastomoses, along with concomitant disturbances, such as esophagitis, sphincter dysfunction, failed intestinal adaptation, colitis, short bowel syndrome, major vessel occlusion, NO-system, and prostaglandins-system dysfunction, which were accordingly counteracted as well, and, finally, findings concerning other anastomoses healing (i.e., nerve and vessel). Moreover, the healing of fistulas, both external and internal, colocutaneous, gastrocutaneous, esophagocutaneous, duodenocutaneous, vesicovaginal, colovesical, and rectovaginal in rats, perceived as anastomoses made between two different tissues which are normally not connected, may also be indicative. This may be a particular reconnection of the parts of the gastrointestinal tract to re-establish adequate integrity depending on the tissue involved, given that both various intestinal anastomoses and various fistulas (intestinal and skin were accordingly healed simultaneously as the fistulas disappeared) were all healed.

The Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Pleiotropic Beneficial Activity and Its Possible Relations with Neurotransmitter Activity

We highlight the particular aspects of the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 pleiotropic beneficial activity (not destroyed in human gastric juice, native and stable in human gastric juice, as a cytoprotection mediator holds a response specifically related to preventing or recovering damage as such) and its possible relations with neurotransmitter activity. We attempt to resolve the shortage of the pleiotropic beneficial effects of BPC 157, given the general standard neurotransmitter criteria, in classic terms. We substitute the lack of direct conclusive evidence (i.e., production within the neuron or present in it as a precursor molecule, released eliciting a response on the receptor on the target cells on neurons and being removed from the site of action once its signaling role is complete). This can be a network of interconnected evidence, previously envisaged in the implementation of the cytoprotection effects, consistent beneficial particular evidence that BPC 157 therapy counteracts dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA, adrenalin/noradrenalin, acetylcholine, and NO-system disturbances. This specifically includes counteraction of those disturbances related to their receptors, both blockade and over-activity, destruction, depletion, tolerance, sensitization, and channel disturbances counteraction. Likewise, BPC 157 activates particular receptors (i.e., VGEF and growth hormone). Furthermore, close BPC 157/NO-system relations with the gasotransmitters crossing the cell membrane and acting directly on molecules inside the cell may envisage particular interactions with receptors on the plasma membrane of their target cells. Finally, there is nerve-muscle relation in various muscle disturbance counteractions, and nerve-nerve relation in various encephalopathies counteraction, which is also exemplified specifically by the BPC 157 therapy application.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Therapy: Effect on Reperfusion Following Maintained Intra-Abdominal Hypertension (Grade III and IV) in Rats

Given in reperfusion, the use of stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 is an effective therapy in rats. It strongly counteracted, as a whole, decompression/reperfusion-induced occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome following the worst circumstances of acute abdominal compartment and intra-abdominal hypertension, grade III and grade IV, as well as compression/ischemia-occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome. Before decompression (calvariectomy, laparotomy), rats had long-lasting severe intra-abdominal hypertension, grade III (25 mmHg/60 min) (i) and grade IV (30 mmHg/30 min; 40 mmHg/30 min) (ii/iii), and severe occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome. Further worsening was caused by reperfusion for 60 min (i) or 30 min (ii/iii). Severe vascular and multiorgan failure (brain, heart, liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal lesions), widespread thrombosis (peripherally and centrally) severe arrhythmias, intracranial (superior sagittal sinus) hypertension, portal and caval hypertension, and aortal hypotension were aggravated. Contrarily, BPC 157 therapy (10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg sc) given at 3 min reperfusion times eliminated/attenuated venous hypertension (intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal, and caval) and aortal hypotension and counteracted the increases in organ lesions and malondialdehyde values (blood ˃ heart, lungs, liver, kidney ˃ brain, gastrointestinal tract). Vascular recovery promptly occurred (i.e., congested inferior caval and superior mesenteric veins reversed to the normal vessel presentation, the collapsed azygos vein reversed to a fully functioning state, the inferior caval vein-superior caval vein shunt was recovered, and direct blood delivery returned). BPC 157 therapy almost annihilated thrombosis and hemorrhage (i.e., intracerebral hemorrhage) as proof of the counteracted general stasis and Virchow triad circumstances and reorganized blood flow. In conclusion, decompression/reperfusion-induced occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome counteracted by BPC 157 therapy in rats is likely for translation in patients. It is noteworthy that by rapidly counteracting the reperfusion course, it also reverses previous ischemia-course lesions, thus inducing complete recovery.

Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 as Therapy for Inferior Caval Vein Embolization: Recovery of Sodium Laurate-Post-Embolization Syndrome in Rats

After inferior caval vein embolization therapy, post-embolization syndrome (sodium laurate 10 mg/kg, 0.1 mL into rat inferior caval vein, assessment at 15, 30, 60 min, prime lung lesions, thromboemboli occluding lung vessels), as a severe occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome, might be resolved as a whole by stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 therapy. At 5 min after laurate injection, stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 was implemented as therapy (10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg intraperitoneally or intragastrically). As before, confronted with the occlusion of major vessel(s) or similar noxious procedures, such as rapidly acting Virchow triad circumstances, the particular effect of the therapy (i.e., collateral pathways activation, "bypassing vascular key", i.e., direct blood flow delivery via activation of azygos vein) assisted in the recovery of the vessel/s and counteracted multiorgan failure due to occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome as a whole in the laurate-injected rats. Along with prime lung lesions and thromboemboli occluding lung vessels, post-embolization syndrome rapidly occurred peripherally and centrally as a shared multiorgan and vessel failure, brain, heart, lung, liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract lesions, venous hypertension (intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal, and caval), aortal hypotension, progressing thrombosis in veins and arteries and stasis, congested and/or failed major veins, and severe ECG disturbances. Whatever the cause, these were all counteracted, eliminated, or attenuated by the application of BPC 157 therapy. As recovery with BPC 157 therapy commonly and rapidly occurred, reversing the collapsed azygos vein to the rescuing collateral pathway might initiate rapid direct blood delivery and start blood flow reorganization. In conclusion, we suggest BPC 157 therapy to resolve further vascular and embolization injuries.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157-Possible Novel Therapy of Glaucoma and Other Ocular Conditions

Recently, stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 therapy by activation of collateral pathways counteracted various occlusion/occlusion-like syndromes, vascular, and multiorgan failure, and blood pressure disturbances in rats with permanent major vessel occlusion and similar procedures disabling endothelium function. Thereby, we revealed BPC 157 cytoprotective therapy with strong vascular rescuing capabilities in glaucoma therapy. With these capabilities, BPC 157 therapy can recover glaucomatous rats, normalize intraocular pressure, maintain retinal integrity, recover pupil function, recover retinal ischemia, and corneal injuries (i.e., maintained transparency after complete corneal abrasion, corneal ulceration, and counteracted dry eye after lacrimal gland removal or corneal insensitivity). The most important point is that in glaucomatous rats (three of four episcleral veins cauterized) with high intraocular pressure, all BPC 157 regimens immediately normalized intraocular pressure. BPC 157-treated rats exhibited normal pupil diameter, microscopically well-preserved ganglion cells and optic nerve presentation, normal fundus presentation, nor- mal retinal and choroidal blood vessel presentation, and normal optic nerve presentation. The one episcleral vein rapidly upgraded to accomplish all functions in glaucomatous rats may correspond with occlusion/occlusion-like syndromes of the activated rescuing collateral pathway (azygos vein direct blood flow delivery). Normalized intraocular pressure in glaucomatous rats corresponded to the counteracted intra-cranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal, and caval hypertension, and aortal hypotension in occlusion/occlusion-like syndromes, were all attenuated/eliminated by BPC 157 therapy. Furthermore, given in other eye disturbances (i.e., retinal ischemia), BPC 157 instantly breaks a noxious chain of events, both at an early stage and an already advanced stage. Thus, we further advocate BPC 157 as a therapeutic agent in ocular disease.

Stomach perforation-induced general occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome and stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 therapy effect

BACKGROUND

Using rat stomach perforation as a prototypic direct lesion applied in cytoprotection research, we focused on the first demonstration of the severe occlusion/ occlusion-like syndrome induced by stomach perforation. The revealed stomach-induced occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome corresponds to the previously described occlusion/occlusion-like syndromes in rats suffering multicausal pathology and shared severe vascular and multiorgan failure. This general point was particularly reviewed. As in all the described occlusion/occlusion-like syndromes with permanent occlusion of major vessels, peripheral and central, and other similar noxious procedures that severely affect endothelium function, the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 was resolving therapy.

AIM

To reveal the stomach perforation-induced general occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome and BPC 157 therapy effect.

METHODS

The procedure included deeply anesthetized rats, complete calvariectomy, laparotomy at 15 min thereafter, and stomach perforation to rapidly induce vascular and multiorgan failure occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome. At 5 min post-perforation time, rats received therapy [BPC 157 (10 µg or 10 ng/kg) or saline (5 mL/kg, 1 mL/rat) (controls)] into the perforated defect in the stomach). Sacrifice was at 15 min or 60 min post-perforation time. Assessment (gross and microscopy; volume) included: Brain swelling, peripheral vessels (azygos vein, superior mesenteric vein, portal vein, inferior caval vein) and heart, other organs lesions (i.e., stomach, defect closing or widening); superior sagittal sinus, and peripherally the portal vein, inferior caval vein, and abdominal aorta blood pressures and clots; electrocardiograms; and bleeding time from the perforation(s).

RESULTS

BPC 157 beneficial effects accord with those noted before in the healing of the perforated defect (raised vessel presentation; less bleeding, defect contraction) and occlusion/occlusion-like syndromes counteraction. BPC 157 therapy (into the perforated defect), induced immediate shrinking and contraction of the whole stomach (unlike considerable enlargement by saline application). Accordingly, BPC 157 therapy induced direct blood delivery via the azygos vein, and attenuated/eliminated the intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal and caval hypertension, and aortal hypotension. Thrombosis, peripherally (inferior caval vein, portal vein, abdominal aorta) and centrally (superior sagittal sinus) BPC 157 therapy markedly reduced/annihilated. Severe lesions in the brain (swelling, hemorrhage), heart (congestion and arrhythmias), lung (hemorrhage and congestion), and marked congestion in the liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract were markedly reduced.

CONCLUSION

We revealed stomach perforation as a severe occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome, peripherally and centrally, and rapid counteraction by BPC 157 therapy. Thereby, further BPC 157 therapy may be warranted.

Antiarrhythmic Sotalol, Occlusion/Occlusion-like Syndrome in Rats, and Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Therapy

We focused on the first demonstration that antiarrhythmics, particularly class II and class III antiarrhythmic and beta-blocker sotalol can induce severe occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome in rats. In this syndrome, as in similar syndromes with permanent occlusion of major vessels, peripheral and central, and other similar noxious procedures that severely disable endothelium function, the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157-collateral pathways activation, was a resolving therapy. After a high dose of sotalol (80 mg/kg intragastrically) in 180 min study, there were cause-consequence lesions in the brain (swelling, intracerebral hemorrhage), congestion in the heart, lung, liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract, severe bradycardia, and intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal and caval hypertension, and aortal hypotension, and widespread thrombosis, peripherally and centrally. Major vessels failed (congested inferior caval and superior mesenteric vein, collapsed azygos vein). BPC 157 therapy (10 µg, 10 ng/kg given intragastrically at 5 min or 90 min sotalol-time) effectively counteracted sotalol-occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome. In particular, eliminated were heart dilatation, and myocardial congestion affecting coronary veins and arteries, as well as myocardial vessels; eliminated were portal and caval hypertension, lung parenchyma congestion, venous and arterial thrombosis, attenuated aortal hypotension, and centrally, attenuated intracranial (superior sagittal sinus) hypertension, brain lesions and pronounced intracerebral hemorrhage. Further, BPC 157 eliminated and/or markedly attenuated liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract congestion and major veins congestion. Therefore, azygos vein activation and direct blood delivery were essential for particular BPC 157 effects. Thus, preventing such and similar events, and responding adequately when that event is at risk, strongly advocates for further BPC 157 therapy.

Innate Vascular Failure by Application of Neuroleptics, Amphetamine, and Domperidone Rapidly Induced Severe Occlusion/Occlusion-like Syndromes in Rats and Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 as Therapy

Even before behavioral disturbances, neuroleptics, amphetamine, and domperidone application rapidly emerged severe occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome, shared innate vascular and multiorgan failure in rats, comparable to occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome described with vessel(s) occlusion or similar noxious procedures application. As therapy, i.e., activation of the collateral pathways, "bypassing key" (activated azygos vein pathway, direct blood flow delivery), the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 is a novel solution. Recently, BPC 157 therapy particularly counteracted neuroleptic- or L-NAME-induced catalepsy, lithium intoxication, and schizophrenia positive and negative symptoms (amphetamine/methamphetamine/apomorphine/ketamine). In rats with complete calvariectomy, medication (BPC 157 10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg ip or ig) was given 5 min after distinctive dopamine agents (mg/kg ip) (haloperidol (5), fluphenazine (5), clozapine (10), risperidone (5), olanzapine (10), quetiapine (10), or aripiprazole (10), domperidone (25), amphetamine (10), and combined amphetamine and haloperidol) and assessed at 15 min thereafter. All neuroleptic-, domperidone-, and amphetamine-induced comparable vascular and multiorgan failure severe syndrome was alleviated with BPC 157 therapy as before major vessel(s) occlusion or other similar noxious procedures. Specifically, all severe lesions in the brain (i.e., immediate swelling, hemorrhage), heart (i.e., congestion, arrhythmias), and lung (i.e., congestion, hemorrhage), as well as congestion in the liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal (stomach) tract, were resolved. Intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal, and caval hypertension and aortal hypotension were attenuated or eliminated. BPC 157 therapy almost annihilated arterial and venous thrombosis, peripherally and centrally. Thus, rapidly acting Virchow triad circumstances that occur as dopamine central/peripheral antagonists and agonist essential class-points, fully reversed by BPC 157 therapy, might be overwhelming for both neuroleptics and amphetamine.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 May Recover Brain-Gut Axis and Gut-Brain Axis Function

Conceptually, a wide beneficial effect, both peripherally and centrally, might have been essential for the harmony of brain-gut and gut-brain axes' function. Seen from the original viewpoint of the gut peptides' significance and brain relation, the favorable stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 evidence in the brain-gut and gut-brain axes' function might have been presented as a particular interconnected network. These were the behavioral findings (interaction with main systems, anxiolytic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant effect, counteracted catalepsy, and positive and negative schizophrenia symptoms models). Muscle healing and function recovery appeared as the therapeutic effects of BPC 157 on the various muscle disabilities of a multitude of causes, both peripheral and central. Heart failure was counteracted (including arrhythmias and thrombosis), and smooth muscle function recovered. These existed as a multimodal muscle axis impact on muscle function and healing as a function of the brain-gut axis and gut-brain axis as whole. Finally, encephalopathies, acting simultaneously in both the periphery and central nervous system, BPC 157 counteracted stomach and liver lesions and various encephalopathies in NSAIDs and insulin rats. BPC 157 therapy by rapidly activated collateral pathways counteracted the vascular and multiorgan failure concomitant to major vessel occlusion and, similar to noxious procedures, reversed initiated multicausal noxious circuit of the occlusion/occlusion-like syndrome. Severe intracranial (superior sagittal sinus) hypertension, portal and caval hypertensions, and aortal hypotension were attenuated/eliminated. Counteracted were the severe lesions in the brain, lungs, liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract. In particular, progressing thrombosis, both peripherally and centrally, and heart arrhythmias and infarction that would consistently occur were fully counteracted and/or almost annihilated. To conclude, we suggest further BPC 157 therapy applications.

Effects of Long-Term Intervention with Losartan, Aspirin and Atorvastatin on Vascular Remodeling in Juvenile Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

Hypertension in adolescents is associated with adverse cardiac and vascular events. In addition to lowering blood pressure, it is not clear whether pharmacological therapy in early life can improve vascular remodeling. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of long-term administration of losartan, aspirin, and atorvastatin on vascular remodeling in juvenile spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). Losartan, aspirin, and atorvastatin were administered via gavage at doses of 20, 10, and 10 mg/kg/day, respectively, on SHRs aged 6-22 weeks. Paraffin sections of the blood vessels were stained with hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) and Sirius Red to evaluate the changes in the vascular structure and the accumulation of different types of collagen. The plasma levels of renin, angiotensin II (Ang II), aldosterone (ALD), endothelin-1 (ET-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and neutrophil elastase (NE) were determined using ELISA kits. After the 16-week treatment with losartan, aspirin, and atorvastatin, the wall thickness of the thoracic aorta and carotid artery decreased. The integrity of the elastic fibers in the tunica media was maintained in an orderly manner, and collagen deposition in the adventitia was retarded. The plasma levels of renin, ALD, ET-1, IL-6, and NE in the SHRs also decreased. These findings suggest that losartan, aspirin, and atorvastatin could improve vascular remodeling beyond their antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-lowering effects. Many aspects of the protection provided by pharmacological therapy are important for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases in adults and older adults.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and Striated, Smooth, and Heart Muscle

First, we review the definitively severed myotendinous junction and recovery by the cytoprotective stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 therapy, its healing that might combine both transected and detached tendon and transected muscle, ligament and bone injuries, applied alone, as native peptide therapy, effective in rat injury, given intraperitoneally or in drinking water or topically, at the site of injury. As a follow up, we reviewed that with the BPC 157 therapy, its cytoprotective ability to organize simultaneous healing of different tissues of and full recovery of the myotendinous junction might represent the particular muscle therapy against distinctive etiopathology muscle disabilities and weakness. In this, BPC 157 therapy might recover many of muscle disabilities (i.e., succinylcholine, vascular occlusion, spinal cord compression, stroke, traumatic brain injury, severe electrolyte disturbances, neurotoxins, neuroleptics, alcohol, serotonin syndrome and NO-system blockade and tumor-cachexia). These might provide practical realization of the multimodal muscle-axis impact able to react depending on the condition and the given agent(s) and the symptoms distinctively related to the prime injurious cause symptoms in the wide healing concept, the concept of cytoprotection, in particular. Further, the BPC 157 therapy might be the recovery for the disabled heart functioning, and disabled smooth muscle functioning (various sphincters function recovery). Finally, BPC 157, native and stable in human gastric juice, might be a prototype of anti-ulcer cytoprotective peptide for the muscle therapy with high curing potential (very safe profile (lethal dose not achieved), with suited wide effective range (µg-ng regimens) and ways of application).

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Reveals Molecular Changes in Blood Vessels of Rats Treated with Pentadecapeptide BPC 157

Recently, it was found that when confronted with major vessel occlusion and vascular failure, stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 therapy might rapidly functionally improve minor vessels to take over the function of disabled major vessels, reorganize blood flow, and compensate failed vessel function. We focused on the BPC 157 therapy effect obtained by giving 10 ng/kg ip to rats 5 min before sacrifice on the rat thoracic aorta, which we assessed with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) 90 min thereafter. We applied a principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA model showed, with a clear distinction being mostly due to the PC1 score, differences between the spectra of BPC 157- and saline-treated rats. The comparison of the averaged spectra of these two groups with their differential spectrum and PC loadings allowed us to identify the parts of the FTIR spectra that contributed the most to the spectral separation of the two observed groups. The PC1 loadings and the differential spectrum showed that the main bands affecting the separation were the amid I band around 1650 cm-1, the amid II band around 1540 cm-1, and the vibrational band around 1744 cm-1. Fitting the spectral range between 1450 and 1800 cm-1 showed changes in protein conformation and confirmed the appearance of the vibrational band at 1744 cm-1. Controls had a substantially more intense vibrational band at 1744 cm-1. These spectral results showed the cells from saline-treated (control) rats to be in the early stage of cell death, while the samples from BPC 157-rats were protected. Thus, BPC 157 therapy changed the lipid contents and protein secondary structure conformation, with a rapid effect on vessels, within a short time upon application.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 as Useful Cytoprotective Peptide Therapy in the Heart Disturbances, Myocardial Infarction, Heart Failure, Pulmonary Hypertension, Arrhythmias, and Thrombosis Presentation

In heart disturbances, stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 especial therapy effects combine the therapy of myocardial infarction, heart failure, pulmonary hypertension arrhythmias, and thrombosis prevention and reversal. The shared therapy effect occurred as part of its even larger cytoprotection (cardioprotection) therapy effect (direct epithelial cell protection; direct endothelium cell protection) that BPC 157 exerts as a novel cytoprotection mediator, which is native and stable in human gastric juice, as well as easily applicable. Accordingly, there is interaction with many molecular pathways, combining maintained endothelium function and maintained thrombocytes function, which counteracted thrombocytopenia in rats that underwent major vessel occlusion and deep vein thrombosis and counteracted thrombosis in all vascular studies; the coagulation pathways were not affected. These appeared as having modulatory effects on NO-system (NO-release, NOS-inhibition, NO-over-stimulation all affected), controlling vasomotor tone and the activation of the Src-Caveolin-1-eNOS pathway and modulatory effects on the prostaglandins system (BPC 157 counteracted NSAIDs toxicity, counteracted bleeding, thrombocytopenia, and in particular, leaky gut syndrome). As an essential novelty noted in the vascular studies, there was the activation of the collateral pathways. This might be the upgrading of the minor vessel to take over the function of the disabled major vessel, competing with and counteracting the Virchow triad circumstances devastatingly present, making possible the recruitment of collateral blood vessels, compensating vessel occlusion and reestablishing the blood flow or bypassing the occluded or ruptured vessel. As a part of the counteraction of the severe vessel and multiorgan failure syndrome, counteracted were the brain, lung, liver, kidney, gastrointestinal lesions, and in particular, the counteraction of the heart arrhythmias and infarction.

Therapy Effect of the Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on Acute Pancreatitis as Vascular Failure-Induced Severe Peripheral and Central Syndrome in Rats

We revealed the therapy effect of the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 (10 μg/kg, 10 ng/kg ig or po) with specific activation of the collateral rescuing pathways, the azygos vein, on bile duct ligation in particular, and acute pancreatitis as local disturbances (i.e., improved gross and microscopy presentation, decreased amylase level). Additionally, we revealed the therapy's effect on the acute pancreatitis as vascular failure and multiorgan failure, both peripherally and centrally following "occlusion-like" syndrome, major intoxication (alcohol, lithium), maintained severe intra-abdominal hypertension, and myocardial infarction, or occlusion syndrome, and major vessel occlusion. The application-sacrifice periods were ligation times of 0-30 min, 0-5 h, 0-24 h (cured periods, early regimen) and 4.30 h-5 h, 5 h-24 h (cured periods, delayed regimen). Otherwise, bile duct-ligated rats commonly presented intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal and caval hypertension and aortal hypotension, gross brain swelling, hemorrhage and lesions, heart dysfunction, lung lesions, liver and kidney failure, gastrointestinal lesions, and severe arterial and venous thrombosis, peripherally and centrally. Unless antagonized with the key effect of BPC 157 regimens, reversal of the inferior caval and superior mesenteric vein congestion and reversal of the failed azygos vein activated azygos vein-recruited direct delivery to rescue the inferior-superior caval vein pathway; these were all antecedent to acute pancreatitis major lesions (i.e., acinar, fat necrosis, hemorrhage). These lesions appeared in the later period, but were markedly attenuated/eliminated (i.e., hemorrhage) in BPC 157-treated rats. To summarize, while the innate vicious cycle may be peripheral (bile duct ligation), or central (rapidly developed brain disturbances), or peripheral and central, BPC 157 resolved acute pancreatitis and its adjacent syndrome.

Novel Therapeutic Effects in Rat Spinal Cord Injuries: Recovery of the Definitive and Early Spinal Cord Injury by the Administration of Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Therapy

Recently, marked therapeutic effects pertaining to the recovery of injured rat spinal cords (1 min compression injury of the sacrocaudal spinal cord (S2-Co1) resulting in tail paralysis) appeared after a single intraperitoneal administration of the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 at 10 min post-injury. Besides the demonstrated rapid and sustained recovery (1 year), we showed the particular points of the immediate effect of the BPC 157 therapy that began rapidly after its administration, (i) soon after injury (10 min), or (ii) later (4 days), in the rats with a definitive spinal cord injury. Specifically, in counteracting spinal cord hematoma and swelling, (i) in rats that had undergone acute spinal cord injury, followed by intraperitoneal BPC 157 application at 10 min, we focused on the first 10-30 min post-injury period (assessment of gross, microscopic, and gene expression changes). Taking day 4 post-injury as the definitive injury, (ii) we focused on the immediate effects after the BPC 157 intragastric application over 20 min of the post-therapy period. Comparable long-time recovery was noted in treated rats which had definitive tail paralysis: (iii) the therapy was continuously given per orally in drinking water, beginning at day 4 after injury and lasting one month after injury. BPC 157 rats presented only discrete edema and minimal hemorrhage and increased Nos1, Nos2, and Nos3 values (30 min post-injury, (i)) or only mild hemorrhage, and only discrete vacuolation of tissue (day 4, (ii)). In the day 4-30 post-injury study (iii), BPC 157 rats rapidly presented tail function recovery, and no demyelination process (Luxol fast blue staining).

Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and the central nervous system

We reviewed the pleiotropic beneficial effects of the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157, three very recent demonstrations that may be essential in the gut-brain and brain-gut axis operation, and therapy application in the central nervous system disorders, in particular. Firstly, given in the reperfusion, BPC 157 counteracted bilateral clamping of the common carotid arteries-induced stroke, sustained brain neuronal damages were resolved in rats as well as disturbed memory, locomotion, and coordination. This therapy effect supports particular gene expression in hippocampal tissues that appeared in BPC 157-treated rats. Secondly, there are L-NG-nitro arginine methyl ester (L-NAME)- and haloperidol-induced catalepsy as well as the rat acute and chronic models of 'positive-like' schizophrenia symptoms, that BPC 157 counteracted, and resolved the complex relationship of the nitric oxide-system with amphetamine and apomorphine (dopamine agents application), MK-801 (non-competitive antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor) and chronic methamphetamine administration (to induce sensitivity). Thirdly, after rat spinal cord compression, there were advanced healing and functional recovery (counteracted tail paralysis). Likewise, in BPC 157 therapy, there is specific support for each of these topics: counteracted encephalopathies; alleviated vascular occlusion disturbances (stroke); counteracted dopamine disturbances (dopamine receptors blockade, receptors super sensitivity development, or receptor activation, over-release, nigrostriatal damage, vesicles depletion), and nitric oxide-system disturbances ("L-NAME non-responsive, L-arginine responsive," and "L-NAME responsive, L-arginine responsive") (schizophrenia therapy); inflammation reduction, nerve recovery in addition to alleviated hemostasis and vessels function after compression (spinal cord injury therapy). Thus, these disturbances may be all resolved within the same agent's beneficial activity, i.e., the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 May Counteract Myocardial Infarction Induced by Isoprenaline in Rats

We revealed that the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157, a useful peptide therapy against isoprenaline myocardial infarction, as well as against isoprenaline myocardial reinfarction, may follow the counteraction of the recently described occlusion-like syndrome, induced peripherally and centrally, which was described for the first time in isoprenaline-treated rats. BPC 157 (10 ng/kg, 10 µg/kg i.p.), L-NAME (5 mg/kg i.p.), and L-arginine (200 mg/kg i.p.) were given alone or together at (i) 30 min before or, alternatively, (ii) at 5 min after isoprenaline (75 or 150 mg/kg s.c.). At 30 min after isoprenaline 75 mg/kg s.c., we noted an early multiorgan failure (brain, heart, lung, liver, kidney and gastrointestinal lesions), thrombosis, intracranial (superior sagittal sinus) hypertension, portal and caval hypertension, and aortal hypotension, in its full presentation (or attenuated by BPC 157 therapy (given at 5 min after isoprenaline) via activation of the azygos vein). Further, we studied isoprenaline (75 or 150 mg/kg s.c.) myocardial infarction (1 challenge) and reinfarction (isoprenaline at 0 h and 24 h, 2 challenges) in rats (assessed at the end of the subsequent 24 h period). BPC 157 reduced levels of all necrosis markers, CK, CK-MB, LDH, and cTnT, and attenuated gross (no visible infarcted area) and histological damage, ECG (no ST-T ischemic changes), and echocardiography (preservation of systolic left ventricular function) damage induced by isoprenaline. Its effect was associated with a significant decrease in oxidative stress parameters and likely maintained NO system function, providing that BPC 157 interacted with eNOS and COX2 gene expression in a particular way and counteracted the noxious effect of the NOS-blocker, L-NAME.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Therapy of Rat Glaucoma

Cauterization of three episcleral veins (open-angle glaucoma model) induces venous congestion and increases intraocular pressure in rats. If not upgraded, one episcleral vein is regularly unable to acquire and take over the whole function, and glaucoma-like features persist. Recently, the rapid upgrading of the collateral pathways by a stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 has cured many severe syndromes induced by permanent occlusion of major vessels, veins and/or arteries, peripherally and centrally. In a six-week study, medication was given prophylactically (immediately before glaucoma surgery, i.e., three episcleral veins cauterization) or as curative treatment (starting at 24 h after glaucoma surgery). The daily regimen of BPC 157 (0.4 µg/eye, 0.4 ng/eye; 10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg) was administered locally as drops in each eye, intraperitoneally (last application at 24 h before sacrifice) or per-orally in drinking water (0.16 µg/mL, 0.16 ng/mL, 12 mL/rat until the sacrifice, first application being intragastric). Consequently, all BPC 157 regimens immediately normalized intraocular pressure. BPC 157-treated rats exhibited normal pupil diameter, microscopically well-preserved ganglion cells and optic nerve presentation, normal fundus presentation, normal retinal and choroidal blood vessel presentation and normal optic nerve presentation. As leading symptoms, increased intraocular pressure and mydriasis, as well as degeneration of retinal ganglion cells, optic nerve head excavation and reduction in optic nerve thickness, generalized severe irregularity of retinal vessels, faint presentation of choroidal vessels and severe optic nerve disc atrophy were all counteracted. In conclusion, we claim that the reversal of the episcleral veins cauterization glaucoma appeared as a consequence of the BPC 157 therapy of the vessel occlusion-induced perilous syndrome.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Therapy for Primary Abdominal Compartment Syndrome in Rats

Recently, the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 was shown to counteract major vessel occlusion syndromes, i.e., peripheral and/or central occlusion, while activating particular collateral pathways. We induced abdominal compartment syndrome (intra-abdominal pressure in thiopental-anesthetized rats at 25 mmHg (60 min), 30 mmHg (30 min), 40 mmHg (30 min), and 50 mmHg (15 min) and in esketamine-anesthetized rats (25 mmHg for 120 min)) as a model of multiple occlusion syndrome. By improving the function of the venous system with BPC 157, we reversed the chain of harmful events. Rats with intra-abdominal hypertension (grade III, grade IV) received BPC 157 (10 µg or 10 ng/kg sc) or saline (5 ml) after 10 min. BPC 157 administration recovered the azygos vein via the inferior-superior caval vein rescue pathway. Additionally, intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal, and caval hypertension and aortal hypotension were reduced, as were the grossly congested stomach and major hemorrhagic lesions, brain swelling, venous and arterial thrombosis, congested inferior caval and superior mesenteric veins, and collapsed azygos vein; thus, the failed collateral pathway was fully recovered. Severe ECG disturbances (i.e., severe bradycardia and ST-elevation until asystole) were also reversed. Microscopically, transmural hyperemia of the gastrointestinal tract, intestinal mucosa villi reduction, crypt reduction with focal denudation of superficial epithelia, and large bowel dilatation were all inhibited. In the liver, BPC 157 reduced congestion and severe sinusoid enlargement. In the lung, a normal presentation was observed, with no alveolar membrane focal thickening and no lung congestion or edema, and severe intra-alveolar hemorrhage was absent. Moreover, severe heart congestion, subendocardial infarction, renal hemorrhage, brain edema, hemorrhage, and neural damage were prevented. In conclusion, BPC 157 cured primary abdominal compartment syndrome.

BPC 157 as Potential Treatment for COVID-19

The emergence of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in China at the end of 2019 has caused a large global outbreak. COVID-19 is largely seen as a thrombotic and vascular disease targeting endothelial cells (ECs) throughout the body that can provoke the breakdown of central vascular functions. This explains the complications and multi-organ failure seen in COVID-19 patients including acute respiratory distress syndrome, cardiovascular complications, liver damage, and neurological damage. Acknowledging the comorbidities and potential organ injuries throughout the course of COVID-19 is therefore crucial in the clinical management of patients. Here we discuss BPC 157, based primarily on animal model data, as a novel agent that can improve the clinical management of COVID-19. BPC 157 is a peptide that has demonstrated anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, and endothelial-protective effects in different organ systems in different species. BPC 157 activated endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is associated with nitric oxide (NO) release, tissue repair and angiomodulatory properties which can lead to improved vascular integrity and immune response, reduced proinflammatory profile, and reduced critical levels of the disease. As a result, discussion of its use as a potential prophylactic and complementary treatment is critical. All examined treatments, although potentiality effective against COVID-19, need either appropriate drug development or clinical trials in humans to be suitable for clinical use.

Over-Dose Lithium Toxicity as an Occlusive-like Syndrome in Rats and Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157

Due to endothelial impairment, high-dose lithium may produce an occlusive-like syndrome, comparable to permanent occlusion of major vessel-induced syndromes in rats; intracranial, portal, and caval hypertension, and aortal hypotension; multi-organ dysfunction syndrome; brain, heart, lung, liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal lesions; arterial and venous thrombosis; and tissue oxidative stress. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 may be a means of therapy via activating loops (bypassing vessel occlusion) and counteracting major occlusion syndromes. Recently, BPC 157 counteracted the lithium sulfate regimen in rats (500 mg/kg/day, ip, for 3 days, with assessment at 210 min after each administration of lithium) and its severe syndrome (muscular weakness and prostration, reduced muscle fibers, myocardial infarction, and edema of various brain areas). Subsequently, BPC 157 also counteracted the lithium-induced occlusive-like syndrome; rapidly counteracted brain swelling and intracranial (superior sagittal sinus) hypertension, portal hypertension, and aortal hypotension, which otherwise would persist; counteracted vessel failure; abrogated congestion of the inferior caval and superior mesenteric veins; reversed azygos vein failure; and mitigated thrombosis (superior mesenteric vein and artery), congestion of the stomach, and major hemorrhagic lesions. Both regimens of BPC 157 administration also counteracted the previously described muscular weakness and prostration (as shown in microscopic and ECG recordings), myocardial congestion and infarction, in addition to edema and lesions in various brain areas; marked dilatation and central venous congestion in the liver; large areas of congestion and hemorrhage in the lung; and degeneration of proximal and distal tubules with cytoplasmic vacuolization in the kidney, attenuating oxidative stress. Thus, BPC 157 therapy overwhelmed high-dose lithium intoxication in rats.

Robert's Intragastric Alcohol-Induced Gastric Lesion Model as an Escalated General Peripheral and Central Syndrome, Counteracted by the Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157

We redefined Robert's prototypical cytoprotection model, namely the intragastric administration of 96% alcohol in order to generate a general peripheral and central syndrome similar to that which occurs when major central or peripheral veins are occluded in animal models. With this redefinition, we used Robert's model to examine the cytoprotective effects of the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157. The intragastric administration of alcohol induced gastric lesions, intracranial (superior sagittal sinus) hypertension, severe brain swelling and lesions, portal and vena caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, severe thrombosis, inferior vena cava and superior mesenteric vein congestion, azygos vein failure (as a failed collateral pathway), electrocardiogram disturbances, and heart, lung, liver and kidney lesions. The use of BPC 157 therapy (10 µg/kg or 10 ng/kg given intraperitoneally 1 min after alcohol) counteracted these deficits rapidly. Specifically, BPC 157 reversed brain swelling and superior mesenteric vein and inferior vena caval congestion, and helped the azygos vein to recover, which improved the collateral blood flow pathway. Microscopically, BPC 157 counteracted brain (i.e., intracerebral hemorrhage with degenerative changes of cerebral and cerebellar neurons), heart (acute subendocardial infarct), lung (parenchymal hemorrhage), liver (congestion), kidney (congestion) and gastrointestinal (epithelium loss, hemorrhagic gastritis) lesions. In addition, this may have taken place along with the activation of specific molecular pathways. In conclusion, these findings clarify and extend the theory of cytoprotection, offer an approach to its practical application, and establish BPC 157 as a prospective cytoprotective treatment.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Heals Established Vesicovaginal Fistula and Counteracts Stone Formation in Rats

With the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 therapy known to heal various both external and internal rat fistulas, we attempt to approach vesicovaginal fistula, continuous urine leaking through vagina, bladder stones, and a possible therapy solution among rats with well-formed 2 week-fistulas (vaginal/vesical 4 mm large defects) started with delayed therapy. Subsequent control fistula course (the subsequent 1, 2, 4, and 6 weeks) since beginning revealed the failed healing, fistula leaking, adhesions, urinary leaking through vagina, failed epithelization, collagenization, granulation tissue and neovascularization, increased inflammation, and necrosis. Thereby, the later intervals revealed the persistent inability to sustain even minimal volume, vesical, and vaginal defects and stone formation at the end of the experiment (fistula-time day 56). BPC 157 therapy (10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg, intraperitoneally once time daily or perorally in drinking water until sacrifice) was initiated with a considerable delay (at 2 weeks after fistula formation). Already within 1 week therapy, all BPC 157 regimens stopped urinary leaking through vagina, reversed the otherwise resistant poor healing course to the increased epithelization, collagenization, granulation tissue and neovascularization, decreased inflammation, and decreased necrosis. Thereby, at later intervals, all BPC 157 rats exhibited a five times larger volume that can be sustained before leaking as in healthy, vesical, and vaginal defects completely closed and no stone formation. Thus, macro/microscopic and functional recovery, and counteracted stone formation. Concluding, BPC 157 therapy's beneficial effects resulted in healing and no stone formation, with µg- and ng-regimens, either given daily perorally in drinking water or intraperitoneally.

Complex Syndrome of the Complete Occlusion of the End of the Superior Mesenteric Vein, Opposed with the Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 in Rats

Background. Gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 therapy in rats compensated irremovable occlusion of various vessels and counteracted the consequent multiorgan dysfunction syndromes by activation of the corresponding collateral bypassing loops. Thus, we used BPC 157 therapy against the irremovable occlusion of the end of the superior mesenteric vein. Methods. Assessments, for 30 min (gross recording, venography, ECG, pressure, microscopy, biochemistry, and oxidative stress) include the portal and caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, and centrally, the superior sagittal sinus hypertension, systemic arterial and venous thrombosis, ECG disturbances, MDA-tissue increase, and heart, lung, liver, kidney and gastrointestinal tract, in particular, and brain (cortex (cerebral, cerebellar), hypothalamus/thalamus, hippocampus) lesions. Rats received BPC 157 medication (10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg) intraperitoneally at 1 or 15 min ligation time. Results. BPC 157 rapidly activated the superior mesenteric vein-inferior anterior pancreati-coduodenal vein-superior anterior pancreaticoduodenal vein-pyloric vein-portal vein pathway, reestablished superior mesenteric vein and portal vein connection and reestablished blood flow. Simultaneously, toward inferior caval vein, an additional pathway appears via the inferior mesenteric vein united with the middle colic vein, throughout its left colic branch to ascertain alternative bypassing blood flow. Consequently, BPC 157 acts peripherally and centrally, and counteracted the intracranial (superior sagittal sinus), portal and caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, ECG disturbances attenuated, abolished progressing venous and arterial thrombosis. Additionally, BPC 157 counteracted multiorgan dysfunction syndrome, heart, lung, liver, kidney and gastrointestinal tract, and brain lesions, and oxidative stress in tissues. Conclusion. BPC 157 therapy may be specific management also for the superior mesenteric vein injuries.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Therapy for Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension in Rats Leads to Prevention and Reversal

Background. Monocrotaline selectively injures the lung's vascular endothelium and induces pulmonary arterial hypertension. The stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 acts as a prototype cytoprotective agent that maintains endothelium, and its application may be a novel therapy. Besides, BPC 157 prevents and reverses thrombosis formation, maintains platelet function, alleviates peripheral vascular occlusion disturbances, and has anti-arrhythmic and anti-inflammatory effects. Monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension in rats (wall thickness, total vessel area, heart frequency, QRS axis deviation, QT interval prolongation, increase in right ventricle systolic pressure and bodyweight loss) can be counteracted with early or delayed BPC 157 therapy. Methods and Results. After monocrotaline (80 mg/kg subcutaneously), BPC 157 (10 μg/kg or 10 ng/kg, days 1-14 or days 1-30 (early regimens), or days 14-30 (delayed regimen)) was given once daily intraperitoneally (last application 24 h before sacrifice) or continuously in drinking water until sacrifice (day 14 or 30). Without therapy, the outcome was the full monocrotaline syndrome, marked by right-side heart hypertrophy and massive thickening of the precapillary artery's smooth muscle layer, clinical deterioration, and sometimes death due to pulmonary hypertension and right-heart failure during the 4th week after monocrotaline injection. With all BPC 157 regimens, monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension (including all disturbed parameters) was counteracted, and consistent beneficial effects were documented during the whole course of the disease. Pulmonary hypertension was not even developed (early regimens) as quickly as the advanced pulmonary hypertension was rapidly attenuated and then completely eliminated (delayed regimen). Conclusions. Thus, pentadecapeptide BPC 157 prevents and counteracts monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension and cor pulmonale in rats.

Occluded Superior Mesenteric Artery and Vein. Therapy with the Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157

BACKGROUND

We investigated the occluded essential vessel tributaries, both arterial and venous, occluded superior mesenteric vein and artery in rats, consequent noxious syndrome, peripherally and centrally. As therapy, we hypothesized the rapidly activated alternative bypassing pathways, arterial and venous, and the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 since it rapidly alleviated venous occlusion syndromes.

METHODS

Assessments were performed for 30 min (gross recording, venography, ECG, pressure, microscopy, biochemistry, and oxidative stress), including portal hypertension, caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, and centrally, the superior sagittal sinus hypertension; systemic arterial and venous thrombosis, ECG disturbances, MDA-tissue increase, the multiple organs lesions, heart, lung, liver, kidney and gastrointestinal tract, including brain (swelling, and cortex (cerebral, cerebellar), hypothalamus/thalamus, hippocampus lesions). Rats received BPC 157 medication (10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg) intraperitoneally at 1 min ligation-time.

RESULTS

BPC 157 rapidly activated collateral pathways. These collateral loops were the superior mesenteric vein-inferior anterior pancreaticoduodenal vein-superior anterior pancreaticoduodenal vein-pyloric vein-portal vein pathway, an alternative pathway toward inferior caval vein via the united middle colic vein and inferior mesenteric vein through the left colic vein, and the inferior anterior pancreaticoduodenal artery and inferior mesenteric artery. Consequently, BPC 157 counteracted the superior sagittal sinus, portal and caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, progressing venous and arterial thrombosis peripherally and centrally, ECG disturbances attenuated. Markedly, the multiple organs lesions, heart, lung, liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract, in particular, as well as brain lesions, and oxidative stress in tissues were attenuated.

CONCLUSIONS

BPC 157 therapy rapidly recovered rats, which have complete occlusion of the superior mesenteric vein and artery.

Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and Wound Healing

Significance: The antiulcer peptide, stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 (previously employed in ulcerative colitis and multiple sclerosis trials, no reported toxicity (LD1 not achieved)), is reviewed, focusing on the particular skin wound therapy, incisional/excisional wound, deep burns, diabetic ulcers, and alkali burns, which may be generalized to the other tissues healing. Recent Advances: BPC 157 has practical applicability (given alone, with the same dose range, and same equipotent routes of application, regardless the injury tested). Critical Issues: By simultaneously curing cutaneous and other tissue wounds (colocutaneous, gastrocutaneous, esophagocutaneous, duodenocutaneous, vesicovaginal, and rectovaginal) in rats, the potency of BPC 157 is evident. Healing of the wounds is accomplished by resolution of vessel constriction, the primary platelet plug, the fibrin mesh which acts to stabilize the platelet plug, and resolution of the clot. Thereby, BPC 157 is effective in wound healing much like it is effective in counteracting bleeding disorders, produced by amputation, and/or anticoagulants application. Likewise, BPC 157 may prevent and/or attenuate or eliminate, thus, counteract both arterial and venous thrombosis. Then, confronted with obstructed vessels, there is circumvention of the occlusion, which may be the particular action of BPC 157 in ischemia/reperfusion. Future Directions: BPC 157 rapidly increases various genes expression in rat excision skin wound. This would define the healing in the other tissues, that is, gastrointestinal tract, tendon, ligament, muscle, bone, nerve, spinal cord, cornea (maintained transparency), and blood vessels, seen with BPC 157 therapy.

BPC 157 Therapy and the Permanent Occlusion of the Superior Sagittal Sinus in Rat: Vascular Recruitment

We show the complex syndrome of the occluded superior sagittal sinus, brain swelling and lesions and multiple peripheral organs lesions in rat. Recovery goes centrally and peripherally, with the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157, which alleviated peripheral vascular occlusion disturbances, rapidly activating alternative bypassing pathways. Assessments were gross recording, venography, ECG, pressure, microscopy, biochemistry. The increased pressure in the superior sagittal sinus, portal and caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, arterial and venous thrombosis, severe brain swelling and lesions (cortex (cerebral, cerebellar), hypothalamus/thalamus, hippocampus), particular veins (azygos, superior mesenteric, inferior caval) dysfunction, heart dysfunction, lung congestion as acute respiratory distress syndrome, kidney disturbances, liver failure, and hemorrhagic lesions in gastrointestinal tract were all assessed. Rats received BPC 157 medication (10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg) intraperitoneally, intragastrically, or topically to the swollen brain at 1 min ligation-time, or at 15 min, 24 h and 48 h ligation-time. BPC 157 therapy rapidly attenuates the brain swelling, rapidly eliminates the increased pressure in the ligated superior sagittal sinus and the severe portal and caval hypertension and aortal hypotension, and rapidly recruits collateral vessels, centrally ((para)sagittal venous collateral circulation) and peripherally (left superior caval vein azygos vein-inferior caval vein). In conclusion, as shown by all assessments, BPC 157 acts against the permanent occlusion of the superior sagittal sinus and syndrome (i.e., brain, heart, lung, liver, kidney, gastrointestinal lesions, thrombosis), given at 1 min, 15 min, 24 h or 48 h ligation-time. BPC 157 therapy rapidly overwhelms the permanent occlusion of the superior sagittal sinus in rat.

BPC 157 as a Therapy for Retinal Ischemia Induced by Retrobulbar Application of L-NAME in Rats

Providing NO-system importance, we suggest that one single application of the NOS-blocker L-NAME may induce retinal ischemia in rats, and that the stable pentadecapeptide BPC 157 may be the therapy, since it may interact with the NO-system and may counteract various adverse effects of L-NAME application. A rat retinal ischemia study was conducted throughout 4 weeks, including fundoscopy, behavior presentation, tonometry, and histology assessment. Retrobulbar L-NAME application (5 mg/kg; 0.5 mg/0.1 ml saline/each eye) in rats immediately produced moderate generalized irregularity in the diameter of blood vessels with moderate atrophy of the optic disc and faint presentation of the choroidal blood vessels, and these lesions rapidly progressed to the severe stage. The specific L-NAME-induced vascular failure points to normal intraocular pressure (except to very transitory increase upon drug retrobulbar administration). When BPC 157 (10 μg; 10 ng/kg, as retrobulbar application, 1 μg; 1 ng/0.1 ml saline/each eye) is given at either 20 min after L-NAME or, lately, at 48 h after L-NAME, the regular retrobulbar L-NAME injection findings disappear. Instead, fundoscopy demonstrated only discrete generalized vessel caliber irregularity with mild atrophy of the optic disc, and then, quite rapidly, normal eye background and choroidal blood vessels, which remain in all of the subsequent periods. Also, histology assessment at 1, 2, and 4 weeks shows that BPC 157 counteracted the damaged inner plexiform layer and inner nuclear layer, and revealed normal retinal thickness. The poor behavioral presentation was also rescued. Thus, while further studies will be done, BPC 157 counteracted L-NAME-induced rat retinal ischemia.

Occlusion of the Superior Mesenteric Artery in Rats Reversed by Collateral Pathways Activation: Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 Therapy Counteracts Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome; Intracranial, Portal, and Caval Hypertension; and Aortal Hypotension

Gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 therapy counteracts multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in rats, which have permanent occlusion of the superior mesenteric artery close to the abdominal aorta. Previously, when confronted with major vessel occlusion, its effect would rapidly activate collateral vessel pathways and resolve major venous occlusion syndromes (Pringle maneuver ischemia, reperfusion, Budd-Chiari syndrome) in rats. This would overwhelm superior mesenteric artery permanent occlusion, and result in local, peripheral, and central disturbances. Methods: Assessments, for 30 min (gross recording, angiography, ECG, pressure, microscopy, biochemistry, and oxidative stress), included the portal hypertension, caval hypertension, and aortal hypotension, and centrally, the superior sagittal sinus hypertension; systemic arterial and venous thrombosis; ECG disturbances; MDA-tissue increase; and multiple organ lesions and disturbances, including the heart, lung, liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract, in particular, as well as brain (cortex (cerebral, cerebellar), hypothalamus/thalamus, hippocampus). BPC 157 therapy (/kg, abdominal bath) (10 µg, 10 ng) was given for a 1-min ligation time. Results: BPC 157 rapidly recruits collateral vessels (inferior anterior pancreaticoduodenal artery and inferior mesenteric artery) that circumvent occlusion and ascertains blood flow distant from the occlusion in the superior mesenteric artery. Portal and caval hypertension, aortal hypotension, and, centrally, superior sagittal sinus hypertension were attenuated or eliminated, and ECG disturbances markedly mitigated. BPC 157 therapy almost annihilated venous and arterial thrombosis. Multiple organ lesions and disturbances (i.e., heart, lung, liver, and gastrointestinal tract, in particular, as well as brain) were largely attenuated. Conclusions: Rats with superior mesenteric artery occlusion may additionally undergo BPC 157 therapy as full counteraction of vascular occlusion-induced multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.

Bowel adhesion and therapy with the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157, L-NAME and L-arginine in rats

BACKGROUND

After parietal peritoneum excision with an underlying superficial layer of muscle tissue in rats, there is failed vasculature, and finally, increased adhesion formation. We hypothesized that unlike nitric oxide (NO)-agents, L-NAME and/or L-arginine, the application of the stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 with its most recent vascular effects ("vascular recruitment") means attenuated bowel adhesion formation and NO- and malondialdehyde (MDA)-tissue values.

AIM

To focused on the bowel adhesion and the therapy with the BPC 157, its most and application of NO-agents.

METHODS

Along with defect creation, medication was (1) during surgery, once, at 1 min after defect creation as an abdominal bath (1 mL/rat), BPC 157 (10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg, 1 mL/rat), an equivolume of saline, L-NAME (5 mg/kg), L-arginine (200 mg/kg) alone and/or combined. Alternatively, medication was (2) intraperitoneally once daily, first application at 30 min after surgery, last application 24 h before assessment at d 7 or d 14. As a postponed therapy to pre-existing adhesion (3), BPC 157 (10 µg/kg, 10 ng/kg intraperitoneally, 1 mL/rat) was given once daily since d 7.

RESULTS

The recovery effect of the BPC 157 regimens goes with the presence of abundant vascular vessels in and near the defect, which occurs rapidly. Lastly, also applied as post-treatment, BPC 157 creates attenuated adhesions, minimal or no adhesion. Contrarily, NO-agents have diverse initial and final effects: The initial weakening of blood vessel disappearance and finally, severe worsening of adhesions (L-NAME) vs the initial weakening of blood vessel disappearance and finally, attenuation of adhesions formation (L-arginine), which counteract each other response given together. Importantly, BPC 157 maintains its beneficial effect also when given with NO-agents (L-NAME + BC 157; L-arginine + BPC 157; L-NAME + L-arginine + BPC 157). Finally, with respect to the increased NO- and MDA- values-adhesion tissue formation relation, unlike diverse effect of the NO-agents, the BPC 157 application effect regularly combines decrease on the increased NO- and MDA- values and the beneficial outcome (less adhesion formation).

CONCLUSION

BPC 157 therapy can be suited for the realization of the peritoneal defect healing with minimal or no adhesion formation.