Integrin-linked kinase functions as a downstream mediator of endothelin-1 to promote invasive behavior in ovarian carcinoma

Endothelin and the tumor microenvironment: a finger in every pie

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a central role in the development of cancer. Within this complex milieu, the endothelin (ET) system plays a key role by triggering epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, causing degradation of the extracellular matrix and modulating hypoxia response, cell proliferation, composition, and activation. These multiple effects of the ET system on cancer progression have prompted numerous preclinical studies targeting the ET system with promising results, leading to considerable optimism for subsequent clinical trials. However, these clinical trials have not lived up to the high expectations; in fact, the clinical trials have failed to demonstrate any substantiated benefit of targeting the ET system in cancer patients. This review discusses the major and recent advances of the ET system with respect to TME and comments on past and ongoing clinical trials of the ET system.

Integrin-linked kinase (ILK): the known vs. the unknown and perspectives

Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) is a multifunctional molecular actor in cell-matrix interactions, cell adhesion, and anchorage-dependent cell growth. It combines functions of a signal transductor and a scaffold protein through its interaction with integrins, then facilitating further protein recruitment within the ILK-PINCH-Parvin complex. ILK is involved in crucial cellular processes including proliferation, survival, differentiation, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis, which reflects on systemic changes in the kidney, heart, muscle, skin, and vascular system, also during the embryonal development. Dysfunction of ILK underlies the pathogenesis of various diseases, including the pro-oncogenic activity in tumorigenesis. ILK localizes mostly to the cell membrane and remains an important component of focal adhesion. We do know much about ILK but a lot still remains either uncovered or unclear. Although it was initially classified as a serine/threonine-protein kinase, its catalytical activity is now questioned due to structural and functional issues, leaving the exact molecular mechanism of signal transduction by ILK unsolved. While it is known that the three isoforms of ILK vary in length, the presence of crucial domains, and modification sites, most of the research tends to focus on the main isoform of this protein while the issue of functional differences of ILK2 and ILK3 still awaits clarification. The activity of ILK is regulated on the transcriptional, protein, and post-transcriptional levels. The crucial role of phosphorylation and ubiquitylation has been investigated, but the functions of the vast majority of modifications are still unknown. In the light of all those open issues, here we present an extensive literature survey covering a wide spectrum of latest findings as well as a past-to-present view on controversies regarding ILK, finishing with pointing out some open questions to be resolved by further research.

Endothelin-1 drives invadopodia and interaction with mesothelial cells through ILK

Cancer cells use actin-based membrane protrusions, invadopodia, to degrade stroma and invade. In serous ovarian cancer (SOC), the endothelin A receptor (ETAR) drives invadopodia by a not fully explored coordinated function of β-arrestin1 (β-arr1). Here, we report that β-arr1 links the integrin-linked kinase (ILK)/βPIX complex to activate Rac3 GTPase, acting as a central node in the adhesion-based extracellular matrix (ECM) sensing and degradation. Downstream, Rac3 phosphorylates PAK1 and cofilin and promotes invadopodium-dependent ECM proteolysis and invasion. Furthermore, ETAR/ILK/Rac3 signaling supports the communication between cancer and mesothelial cells, favoring SOC cell adhesion and transmigration. In vivo, ambrisentan, an ETAR antagonist, inhibits the adhesion and spreading of tumor cells to intraperitoneal organs, and invadopodium marker expression. As prognostic factors, high EDNRA/ILK expression correlates with poor SOC clinical outcome. These findings provide a framework for the ET-1R/β-arr1 pathway as an integrator of ILK/Rac3-dependent adhesive and proteolytic signaling to invadopodia, favoring cancer/stroma interactions and metastatic behavior.

Insulin attenuates apoptosis in neuronal cells by an integrin-linked kinase-dependent mechanism

Insulin promotes neuronal survival by activating a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase)/AKT-dependent signaling pathway and reducing caspase activation. We investigated a role for integrin-linked kinase (ILK) in insulin-mediated cell survival in cultured neurons and differentiated R28 cells. We used a serum and depolarization withdrawal model to induce apoptosis in cerebellar granule neurons and a serum withdrawal model to induce apoptosis in differentiated R28 cells. ILK knock-out decreased insulin-mediated protection as did the addition of pharmacological inhibitors of ILK, KP-392 or QLT-0267. Prosurvival effects of insulin were rescued by Boc-Asp (O-methyl)-CH₂F (BAF), a pancaspase inhibitor, in the presence of KP-392. Insulin and IGF-1 decreased caspase-3 activation, an effect that was inhibited by KP-392 and QLT-0267. Western blot analysis indicates that insulin-induced stimulation of AKT Ser-473 phosphorylation was decreased after the ILK gene was conditionally knocked-out, following overexpression of AKT-DN or in the presence of QLT-0267. Insulin and IGF-1 stimulated ILK kinase activity in primary neurons and this was inhibited following ILK-DN overexpression. Western blot analysis indicates that insulin exposure upregulated the expression of the cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein c-IAP2 in an extracellular matrix-dependent manner, an effect blocked by KP-392. These results indicate that ILK is an important effector in insulin-mediated neuroprotection.

Regulation of extracellular matrix degradation and metastatic spread by IQGAP1 through endothelin-1 receptor signalling in ovarian cancer

The invasive phenotype of serous ovarian cancer (SOC) cells is linked to the formation of actin-based protrusions, invadopodia, operating extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation and metastatic spread. Growth factor receptors might cause engagement of integrin-related proteins, like the polarity protein IQ-domain GTPase-activating protein 1 (IQGAP1), to F-actin core needed for invadopodia functions. Here, we investigated whether IQGAP1 forms a signalosome with endothelin-1 (ET-1)/β-arrestin1 (β-arr1) network, as signal-integrating module for adhesion components, cytoskeletal remodelling and ECM degradation. In SOC cells, ET-1 receptor (ET-1R) activation, besides altering IQGAP1 expression and localization, coordinates the binding of IQGAP1 with β-arr1, representing a "hotspot" for ET-1R-induced invasive signalling. We demonstrated that the molecular interaction of IQGAP1 with β-arr1 affects relocalization of focal adhesion components, as vinculin, and cytoskeleton dynamics, through the regulation of invadopodia-related pathways. In particular, ET-1R deactivates Rac1 thereby promoting RhoA/C activation for the correct functions of invasive structures. Silencing of either IQGAP1 or β-arr1, or blocking ET-1R activation with a dual antagonist macitentan, prevents matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity, invadopodial function, transendothelial migration and cell invasion. In vivo, targeting ET-1R/β-arr1 signalling controls the process of SOC metastasis, associated with reduced levels of IQGAP1, as well as other invadopodia effectors, such as vinculin, phospho-cortactin and membrane type 1-MMP. High expression of ETAR/β-arr1/IQGAP1 positively correlates with poor prognosis, validating the clinical implication of this signature in early prognosis of SOC. These data establish the ET-1R-driven β-arr1/IQGAP1 interaction as a prerequisite for the dynamic integration of pathways in fostering invadopodia and metastatic process in human SOC.

Elucidating essential kinases of endothelin signalling by logic modelling of phosphoproteomics data

Endothelins (EDN) are peptide hormones that activate a GPCR signalling system and contribute to several diseases, including hypertension and cancer. Current knowledge about EDN signalling is fragmentary, and no systems level understanding is available. We investigated phosphoproteomic changes caused by endothelin B receptor (ENDRB) activation in the melanoma cell lines UACC257 and A2058 and built an integrated model of EDNRB signalling from the phosphoproteomics data. More than 5,000 unique phosphopeptides were quantified. EDN induced quantitative changes in more than 800 phosphopeptides, which were all strictly dependent on EDNRB. Activated kinases were identified based on high confidence EDN target sites and validated by Western blot. The data were combined with prior knowledge to construct the first comprehensive logic model of EDN signalling. Among the kinases predicted by the signalling model, AKT, JNK, PKC and AMP could be functionally linked to EDN-induced cell migration. The model contributes to the system-level understanding of the mechanisms underlying the pleiotropic effects of EDN signalling and supports the rational selection of kinase inhibitors for combination treatments with EDN receptor antagonists.

Integrin-linked kinase activity modulates the pro-metastatic behavior of ovarian cancer cells

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the most fatal gynecologic cancer in the U.S., resulting in >14,000 deaths/year. Most women are diagnosed at late stage with widely disseminated intra-peritoneal metastatic disease, resulting in a 5-year survival rate of <30%. EOCs spread via direct extension and exfoliation into the peritoneal cavity, adhesion to peritoneal mesothelial cells, mesothelial cell retraction to expose sub-mseothelial matrix and anchoring in the type I collagen-rich matrix to generate secondary lesions. As a molecular-level understanding of EOC metastasis may identify novel therapeutic targets, the current study evaluated the expression and activity of integrin-linked kinase (ILK), a Ser/Thr protein kinase activated upon integrin-mediated adhesion. Results show that ILK is co-expressed in EOC with the pro-metastatic enzyme membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) and catalyzed phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic tail of the proteinase. Downregulation of ILK expression or activity reduced adhesion to and invasion of collagen gels and organotypic meso-mimetic cultures. As an initial early event in EOC metastasis is integrin-mediated adhesion, these results suggest that further evaluation of ILK inhibitors as anti-metastatic agents in EOC is warranted.

The Role of Endocrine G Protein-Coupled Receptors in Ovarian Cancer Progression

Ovarian cancer is the seventh most common cancer in women and the most lethal gynecological cancer, causing over 151,000 deaths worldwide each year. Dysregulated production of endocrine hormones, known to have pluripotent effects on cell function through the activation of receptor signaling pathways, is believed to be a high-risk factor for ovarian cancer. An increasing body of evidence suggests that endocrine G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are involved in the progression and metastasis of ovarian neoplasms. GPCRs are attractive drug targets because their activities are regulated by more than 25% of all drugs approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Therefore, understanding the role of endocrine GPCRs during ovarian cancer progression and metastasis will allow for the development of novel strategies to design effective chemotherapeutic drugs against malignant ovarian tumors. In this review, we address the signaling pathways and functional roles of several key endocrine GPCRs that are related to the cause, progression, and metastasis of ovarian cancer.

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) inhibitor ibrutinib suppresses stem-like traits in ovarian cancer

According to a Prognoscan database, upregulation of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) is associated with low overall survival in ovarian cancer patients. We found that spheroids-forming ovarian cancer cell, which highly expressed cancer stem-like cell (CSC) markers and Btk, were cisplatin resistant. We next treated CSCs and non-CSCs by a combination of ibrutinib and cisplatin. We found that chemoresistance was dependent on Btk and JAK2/STAT3, which maintained CSC by inducing Sox-2 and prosurvival genes. We suggest that addition of ibrutinib to cisplatin may improve treatment outcome in ovarian cancer.

miR-30a inhibits endothelin A receptor and chemoresistance in ovarian carcinoma

Drug resistance remains the major clinical barrier to successful treatment in epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC) patients, and the evidence of microRNA involvement in drug resistance has been recently emerging. Endothelin-1 (ET-1)/ETA receptor (ETAR) axis is aberrantly activated in chemoresistant EOC cells and elicits pleiotropic effects promoting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and the acquisition of chemoresistance. However, the relationship between ETAR and miRNA is still unknown. Hence, in this study we evaluated whether dysregulation of miRNA might enhance ETAR expression in sensitive and resistant EOC cells. Based on bioinformatic tools, we selected putative miRNA able to recognize the 3'UTR of ETAR. An inverse correlation was observed between the expression levels of miR-30a and ETAR in both EOC cell lines and tumor samples. miR-30a was found to specifically bind to the 3'UTR of ETAR mRNA, indicating that ETAR is a direct target of miR-30a. Overexpression of miR-30a decreased Akt and mitogen activated protein kinase signaling pathway activation, cell proliferation, invasion, plasticity, EMT marker levels, and vascular endothelial growth factor release. Interestingly, ectopic expression of miR-30a re-sensitized platinum-resistant EOC cells to cisplatinum-induced apoptosis. Consistently, resistant EOC xenografts overexpressing miR-30a resulted in significantly less tumor growth than controls. Together our study provides a new perspective on the regulatory mechanism of ETAR gene. Interestingly, our findings highlight that blockade of ETAR regulatory axis is the mechanism underlying the tumor suppressor function of miR-30a in chemoresistant EOC cells.

Loss expression of micro ribonucleic acid (miRNA)-200c induces adverse post-surgical prognosis of advanced stage non-small cell lung carcinoma and its potential relationship with ETAR messenger RNA

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide. As micro ribonucleic acid (miRNA)-200 and ETAR may play an essential role in the process of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) simultaneously, the purpose of this study was to detect the expression of miRNA-200c and ETAR messenger (m)RNA and assess their prognostic significance in early stage NSCLC.

METHODS

Our study included 78 advanced stage (IIB, IIIA, IIIB) NSCLC patients. All patients were smokers. Using quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis, we detected the expression of miRNA-200c and ETAR mRNA and assessed their correlation by χ(2) test. Time to progression was used as the recurrent index and was assessed by univariate and multivariate analysis in the Cox hazard model.

RESULTS

Both miRNA-200c and ETAR mRNA expression are associated with N stage and tumor node metastasis (TNM) stage in a series of advanced NSCLC patients. Among N stage and TNM stage patients, significant differences were found in IIB (P = 0.0126), IIIB (P = 0.0107) and N0 (P = 0.0023) and in N1 + N2 groups (P = 0.0133). Using both univariate and multivariate survival analyses, we found that miRNA-200c (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.352, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.187-0.662) and ETAR mRNA (HR = 2.500 95% CI: 1.345-4.647) were independent prognostic factors, independent of TNM stage (HR = 2.414, 95% CI: 1.600-3.642) and differentiation (HR = 1.530, 95% CI: 1.050-2230).

CONCLUSIONS

miRNA-200c induces an expedient surgical survival, whereas ETAR mRNA has the reverse prognosis in advanced stage NSCLC patients. A potential relationship exists in that miRNA-200c targets ETAR mRNA during EMT.

Using Pharmacokinetic Profiles and Digital Quantification of Stained Tissue Microarrays as a Medium-Throughput, Quantitative Method for Measuring the Kinetics of Early Signaling Changes Following Integrin-Linked Kinase Inhibition in an In Vivo Model of Cancer

A small molecule inhibitor (QLT0267) targeting integrin-linked kinase is able to slow breast tumor growth in vivo; however, the mechanism of action remains unknown. Understanding how targeting molecules involved in intersecting signaling pathways impact disease is challenging. To facilitate this understanding, we used tumor tissue microarrays (TMA) and digital image analysis for quantification of immunohistochemistry (IHC) in order to investigate how QLT0267 affects signaling pathways in an orthotopic model of breast cancer over time. Female NCR nude mice were inoculated with luciferase-positive human breast tumor cells (LCC6^Luc) and tumor growth was assessed by bioluminescent imaging (BLI). The plasma levels of QLT0267 were determined by LC-MS/MS methods following oral dosing of QLT0267 (200 mg/kg). A TMA was constructed using tumor tissue collected at 2, 4, 6, 24, 78 and 168 hr after treatment. IHC methods were used to assess changes in ILK-related signaling. The TMA was digitized, and Aperio ScanScope and ImageScope software were used to provide semi-quantitative assessments of staining levels. Using medium-throughput IHC quantitation, we show that ILK targeting by QLT0267 in vivo influences tumor physiology through transient changes in pathways involving AKT, GSK-3 and TWIST accompanied by the translocation of the pro-apoptotic protein BAD and an increase in Caspase-3 activity.

Acetyl-L-Carnitine Prevents Methamphetamine-Induced Structural Damage on Endothelial Cells via ILK-Related MMP-9 Activity

Methamphetamine (METH) is a potent psychostimulant highly used worldwide. Recent studies evidenced the involvement of METH in the breakdown of the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) integrity leading to compromised function. The involvement of the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in the degradation of the neurovascular matrix components and tight junctions (TJs) is one of the most recent findings in METH-induced toxicity. As BBB dysfunction is a pathological feature of many neurological conditions, unveiling new protective agents in this field is of major relevance. Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) has been described to protect the BBB function in different paradigms, but the mechanisms underling its action remain mostly unknown. Here, the immortalized bEnd.3 cell line was used to evaluate the neuroprotective features of ALC in METH-induced damage. Cells were exposed to ranging concentrations of METH, and the protective effect of ALC 1 mM was assessed 24 h after treatment. F-actin rearrangement, TJ expression and distribution, and MMPs activity were evaluated. Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) knockdown cells were used to assess role of ALC in ILK mediated METH-triggered MMPs' activity. Our results show that METH led to disruption of the actin filaments concomitant with claudin-5 translocation to the cytoplasm. These events were mediated by MMP-9 activation in association with ILK overexpression. Pretreatment with ALC prevented METH-induced activation of MMP-9, preserving claudin-5 location and the structural arrangement of the actin filaments. The present results support the potential of ALC in preserving BBB integrity, highlighting ILK as a new target for the ALC therapeutic use.

β-arrestin-1 drives endothelin-1-mediated podocyte activation and sustains renal injury

Activation of endothelin-A receptor (ET(A)R) by endothelin-1 (ET-1) drives epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in ovarian tumor cells through β-arrestin signaling. Here, we investigated whether this pathogenetic pathway could affect podocyte phenotype in proliferative glomerular disorders. In cultured mouse podocytes, ET-1 caused loss of the podocyte differentiation marker synaptopodin and acquisition of the mesenchymal marker α-smooth muscle actin. ET-1 promoted podocyte migration via ET(A)R activation and increased β-arrestin-1 expression. Activated ET(A)R recruited β-arrestin-1 to form a trimeric complex with Src leading to epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) transactivation and β-catenin phosphorylation, which promoted gene transcription of Snail. Increased Snail expression fostered ET-1-induced migration as confirmed by Snail knockdown experiments. Silencing of β-arrestin-1 prevented podocyte phenotypic changes and motility and inhibited ET(A)R-driven signaling. In vitro findings were confirmed in doxorubicin (Adriamycin)-induced nephropathy. Mice receiving Adriamycin developed renal injury with loss of podocytes and hyperplastic lesion formation; β-arrestin-1 expression increased in visceral podocytes and in podocytes entrapped in pseudo-crescents. Administration of the selective ET(A)R antagonist sitaxsentan prevented podocyte loss, formation of the hyperplastic lesions, and normalized expression of glomerular β-arrestin-1 and Snail. Increased β-arrestin-1 levels in podocytes retrieved from crescents of patients with proliferative glomerulopathies confirmed the translational relevance of these findings and suggest the therapeutic potential of ET(A)R antagonism for a group of diseases still needing a specific treatment.

Endothelin 1 in cancer: biological implications and therapeutic opportunities

Activation of autocrine and paracrine signalling by endothelin 1 (ET1) binding to its receptors elicits pleiotropic effects on tumour cells and on the host microenvironment. This activation modulates cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, chemoresistance and neovascularization, thus providing a strong rationale for targeting ET1 receptors in cancer. In this Review, we discuss the advances in our understanding of the diverse biological roles of ET1 in cancer and describe the latest preclinical and clinical progress that has been made using small-molecule antagonists of ET1 receptors that inhibit ET1-driven signalling.

Link between cancer and Alzheimer disease via oxidative stress induced by nitric oxide-dependent mitochondrial DNA overproliferation and deletion

Nitric oxide- (NO-) dependent oxidative stress results in mitochondrial ultrastructural alterations and DNA damage in cases of Alzheimer disease (AD). However, little is known about these pathways in human cancers, especially during the development as well as the progression of primary brain tumors and metastatic colorectal cancer. One of the key features of tumors is the deficiency in tissue energy that accompanies mitochondrial lesions and formation of the hypoxic smaller sized mitochondria with ultrastructural abnormalities. We speculate that mitochondrial involvement may play a significant role in the etiopathogenesis of cancer. Recent studies also demonstrate a potential link between AD and cancer, and anticancer drugs are being explored for the inhibition of AD-like pathology in transgenic mice. Severity of the cancer growth, metastasis, and brain pathology in AD (in animal models that mimic human AD) correlate with the degree of mitochondrial ultrastructural abnormalities. Recent advances in the cell-cycle reentry of the terminally differentiated neuronal cells indicate that NO-dependent mitochondrial abnormal activities and mitotic cell division are not the only important pathogenic factors in pathogenesis of cancer and AD, but open a new window for the development of novel treatment strategies for these devastating diseases.

Maslinic acid-enriched diet decreases intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc(Min/+) mice through transcriptomic and metabolomic reprogramming

Chemoprevention is a pragmatic approach to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer, one of the leading causes of cancer-related death in western countries. In this regard, maslinic acid (MA), a pentacyclic triterpene extracted from wax-like coatings of olives, is known to inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis in colon cancer cell lines without affecting normal intestinal cells. The present study evaluated the chemopreventive efficacy and associated mechanisms of maslinic acid treatment on spontaneous intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc^Min/+ mice. Twenty-two mice were randomized into 2 groups: control group and MA group, fed with a maslinic acid–supplemented diet for six weeks. MA treatment reduced total intestinal polyp formation by 45% (P<0.01). Putative molecular mechanisms associated with suppressing intestinal polyposis in Apc^Min/+ mice were investigated by comparing microarray expression profiles of MA-treated and control mice and by analyzing the serum metabolic profile using NMR techniques. The different expression phenotype induced by MA suggested that it exerts its chemopreventive action mainly by inhibiting cell-survival signaling and inflammation. These changes eventually induce G1-phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Moreover, the metabolic changes induced by MA treatment were associated with a protective profile against intestinal tumorigenesis. These results show the efficacy and underlying mechanisms of MA against intestinal tumor development in the Apc^Min/+ mice model, suggesting its chemopreventive potential against colorectal cancer.

Migfilin, α-parvin and β-parvin are differentially expressed in ovarian serous carcinoma effusions, primary tumors and solid metastases

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to analyze the expression and clinical role of integrin-linked kinase (ILK), α-parvin, β-parvin and migfilin in advanced-stage serous ovarian carcinoma.

METHODS

Expression of these 4 proteins was investigated in 205 effusions and in 94 patient-matched solid lesions (33 primary tumors and 61 solid metastases) using immunohistochemistry. Protein expression was analyzed for association with clinicopathologic parameters and survival.

RESULTS

ILK, α-parvin, β-parvin and migfilin were expressed in tumor cells in 53%, 2%, 28% and 53% of effusions and 57%, 20%, 83% and 25% of solid lesions, respectively. Statistical analysis showed significantly higher α-parvin and β-parvin expression in primary carcinomas (p=0.02 and p=0.001, respectively) and solid metastases (p=0.001 and p<0.001, respectively), compared to effusions, with opposite findings for migfilin (p=0.006 and p=0.008 for primary carcinomas and solid metastases, respectively). ILK expression was comparable at all anatomic sites. β-Parvin expression in effusions was associated with better response to chemotherapy at diagnosis (p=0.014), with no other significant association with clinicopathologic parameters or survival. Expression in primary tumors and solid metastases was similarly unrelated to clinicopathologic parameters or survival.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides further evidence to our previous observations that the adhesion profile of ovarian serous carcinoma cells in effusions differs from their counterparts in primary carcinomas and solid metastases. β-Parvin may be a novel marker of chemoresponse in metastatic ovarian carcinoma.

α-Catulin drives metastasis by activating ILK and driving an αvβ3 integrin signaling axis

α-Catulin is an oncoprotein that helps sustain proliferation by preventing cellular senescence. Here, we report that α-catulin also drives malignant invasion and metastasis. α-Catulin was upregulated in highly invasive non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines, where its ectopic expression or short-hairpin RNA-mediated attenuation enhanced or limited invasion or metastasis, respectively. α-Catulin interacted with integrin-linked kinase (ILK), a serine/threonine protein kinase implicated in cancer cell proliferation, antiapoptosis, invasion, and angiogenesis. Attenuation of ILK or α-catulin reciprocally blocked cell migration and invasion induced by the other protein. Mechanistic investigations revealed that α-catulin activated Akt-NF-κB signaling downstream of ILK, which in turn led to increased expression of fibronectin and integrin αvβ3. Pharmacologic or antibody-mediated blockade of NF-κB or αvβ3 was sufficient to inhibit α-catulin-induced cell migration and invasion. Clinically, high levels of expression of α-catulin and ILK were associated with poor overall survival in patients with NSCLC. Taken together, our study shows that α-catulin plays a critical role in cancer metastasis by activating the ILK-mediated Akt-NF-κB-αvβ3 signaling axis.

MicroRNAs: Small but amazing, and their association with endothelin

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules involved in the expressional regulation of genes by inhibiting gene translation. MicroRNAs are recruited and incorporated into the miRISC, ribonucleoprotein complex, targeting specific mRNAs through mechanisms specific for a miRNA sequence. Here we review the biogenesis, regulation, and monitoring of miRNAs, as well as the current evidence for potential roles of miRNAs in human diseases associated with activation of the endothelin system. These diseases include cancer, kidney disease, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, infectious diseases, and blood diseases, that may all be aggravated by aberrant miRNA expression. In this review we will also discuss regulatory mechanisms determining production of miRNA as well as measuring or targeting miRNAs as potential novel approaches for diagnosis and treatment. Targeting miRNAs possibly will allow one to detect diseases or to interfere with the progression of diseases associated with activation of the endothelin system.

The function of integrin-linked kinase in normal and activated stellate cells: implications for fibrogenesis in wound healing

Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) is a multidomain focal adhesion protein implicated in signal transduction between integrins and growth factor/extracellular receptors. We have previously shown that ILK expression is increased in liver fibrosis and that ILK appears to be a key regulator of fibrogenesis in rat hepatic stellate cells, effectors of the fibrogenic response. Here we hypothesized that the mechanism by which ILK mediates the fibrogenic phenotype is by engaging the small GTPase, Rho in a signal transduction pathway linked to fibrogenesis. ILK function in quiescent (non-fibrogenic) and activated (fibrogenic) stellate cells was examined in cells isolated from rat livers. ILK, Rho, and Gα(12/13) signaling were manipulated using established chemical agents or specific adenoviral constructs. ILK activity was minimal in quiescent stellate cells, but prominent in activated stellate cells; inhibition of ILK activity had no effect in quiescent cells, but had prominent effects in activated cells. Overexpression of ILK in activated stellate cells increased Rho activity, but had no effect in quiescent cells. Further, endothelin-1 stimulated Rho activity in activated stellate cells, but not in quiescent cells. Rho, Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factors, and Gα(12/13) expression were increased after stellate cell activation. Inhibition of Gα(12/13) signaling, by expression of the RGS domain of the p115-Rho-specific GEF (p115-RGS) in activated stellate cells, significantly inhibited type I collagen and smooth muscle α-actin expression, both classically upregulated after stellate cell activation. The data suggest that ILK mediates Rho-dependent functional effects in activated stellate cells, and raise the possibility that ILK is important in cross-talk with the G-protein-coupled receptor system.

Adenovirus-mediated overexpression of cardiac troponin I-interacting kinase promotes cardiomyocyte hypertrophy

1. Cardiac troponin I-interacting kinase (TNNI3K) is a novel cardiac-specific kinase gene. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis showed a significant increase in TNNI3K mRNA expression in hypertrophic cardiomyocytes induced by endothelin-1 (ET-1). The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of TNNI3K on neonate rat cardiomyocyte hypertrophy induced by ET-1. 2. Adenoviruses were amplified in 293A cells. To determine a reasonable adenovirus infection dose cardiomyocytes were infected with an adenovirus carrying human TNNI3K (Ad-TNNI3K) at varying multiplicity of infection (MOI) and the expression of TNNI3K was analysed by western blot. 3. Cardiomyocytes were infected with either a control adenovirus carrying green fluorescent protein (Ad-GFP) or Ad-TNNI3K. Compared with Ad-GFP, the Ad-TNNI3K induced an increase in sarcomere organization, cell surface area, (3) H-leucine incorporation and β-MHC re-expression. This type of hypertrophic phenomenon is similar to that observed in Ad-GFP-infected hypertrophic cardiomyocytes induced by ET-1. To determine the functional role of TNNI3K in ET-1-induced hypertrophic cardiomyocytes, the cells were infected with Ad-GFP or Ad-TNNI3K. Ad-TNNI3K induced an increase in sarcomere organization, cell surface area and (3) H-leucine incorporation compared with Ad-GFP. 4. These results suggest that TNNI3K overexpression induces cardiomyocytes hypertrophy and accelerates hypertrophy in hypertrophic cardiomyocytes. Therefore, TNNI3K might be an interesting target for the clinical treatment of hypertrophy.

Macitentan (ACT-064992), a tissue-targeting endothelin receptor antagonist, enhances therapeutic efficacy of paclitaxel by modulating survival pathways in orthotopic models of metastatic human ovarian cancer

Potential treatments for ovarian cancers that have become resistant to standard chemotherapies include modulators of tumor cell survival, such as endothelin receptor (ETR) antagonist. We investigated the therapeutic efficacy of the dual ETR antagonist, macitentan, on human ovarian cancer cells, SKOV3ip1 and IGROV1, growing orthotopically in nude mice. Mice with established disease were treated with vehicle (control), paclitaxel (weekly, intraperitoneal injections), macitentan (daily oral administrations), or a combination of paclitaxel and macitentan. Treatment with paclitaxel decreased tumor weight and volume of ascites. Combination therapy with macitentan and paclitaxel reduced tumor incidence and further reduced tumor weight and volume of ascites when compared with paclitaxel alone. Macitentan alone occasionally reduced tumor weight but alone had no effect on tumor incidence or ascites. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed that treatment with macitentan and macitentan plus paclitaxel inhibited the phosphorylation of ETRs and suppressed the survival pathways of tumor cells by decreasing the levels of pVEGFR2, pAkt, and pMAPK. The dose of macitentan necessary for inhibition of phosphorylation correlated with the dose required to increase antitumor efficacy of paclitaxel. Treatment with macitentan enhanced the cytotoxicity mediated by paclitaxel as measured by the degree of apoptosis in tumor cells and tumor-associated endothelial cells. Collectively, these results show that administration of macitentan in combination with paclitaxel prevents the progression of ovarian cancer in the peritoneal cavity of nude mice in part by inhibiting survival pathways of both tumor cells and tumor-associated endothelial cells.

Integrin-linked kinase 1: role in hormonal cancer progression

Integrin-linked kinase 1 (ILK1) is a serine/threonine kinase that plays important roles in a variety of cellular functions including cell survival, migration and angiogenesis. ILK1 is normally expressed in numerous tissues and activated by growth factors, cytokines and hormones. Dysregulation of ILK1 expression or function is found in several hormonal tumors including breast, ovary and prostate. Emerging evidence suggests that ILK overexpression promotes cellular transformation, cell survival, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), and metastasis of hormonal cancer cells while inhibition of ILK1 reduces tumor growth and progression. The recent development of ILK1 inhibitors has provided novel mechanisms for blocking ILK1 signaling to curb metastasis and therapy resistance of hormonal tumors. This review will focus on recent advances made towards understanding the role of ILK signaling axis in progression of hormonal cancer.

Expression of parvin-beta is a prognostic factor for patients with urothelial cell carcinoma of the upper urinary tract

Background:

Parvin-β (ParvB), a potential tumour suppressor gene, is a focal adhesion protein. We evaluated the role of ParvB in the upper urinary tract urothelial cell carcinoma (UUT-UC).

Methods:

ParvB mRNA and proteins levels in UUT-UC tissue were investigated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis, respectively. In addition, the expression of ParvB in tissues from patients with UUT-UC at different stages was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, biological functions of ParvB in urothelial cancer cells were investigated using a doxycycline-inducible overexpression system and siRNA.

Results:

Western blot and mRNA analysis showed downregulation of ParvB expression in frozen UUT-UC tissue. Immunohistochemistry revealed high staining intensity of ParvB in normal urothelium, which decreased markedly at advanced stages of UUT-UC (P=0.0000). Moreover, ParvB was an independent prognostic indicator for disease-specific survival of patients with UUT-UC. Functional assays indicated that overexpression of ParvB in an urothelial cancer cell line resulted in decreased cell growth rate and ability to migrate. In contrast, knockdown of ParvB expression increased cell migration ability.

Conclusions:

Downregulation of ParvB expression significantly increased urothelial cancer cell growth and migration. Downexpression of ParvB level in UUT-UC correlated with tumour stage, and was an independent unfavourable prognostic factor for disease-specific survival of patients with UUT-UC.

Cross-talk between the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis and membrane integrins to regulate cell physiology

The biology of cross-talk between activated growth factor receptors and cell-surface integrins is an area which has attracted much interest in recent years (Schwartz and Ginsberg, 2002). This review discusses the relationship between the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis and cell-surface integrin receptors in the regulation of various aspects of cell physiology. Key to these interactions are signals transmitted between integrins and the IGF-I receptor (IGF-IR) when either or both are bound to their cognate ligands and we will review the current state of knowledge in this area. The IGF axis comprises many molecular components and we will also discuss the potential role of these species in cross-talk with the integrin receptor. With respect to integrin ligands, we will mainly focus on the well-characterized interactions of the two extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins fibronectin (FN) and vitronectin (VN) with cell-surface ligands, and, how this affects activity through the IGF axis. However, we will also highlight the importance of other integrin activation mechanisms and their impact on IGF activity.

Beta-arrestin-1 mediates the endothelin-1-induced activation of Akt and integrin-linked kinase

The contribution of the endothelin-1 (ET-1)/ET A receptor (ETAR) axis in tumor growth and progression is investigated in many tumor types, including ovarian carcinoma. In ovarian cancer cells, ET-1 acts as an autocrine growth factor selectively through the ETAR triggering the concomitant activation of multiple pathways. In these cells, the involvement of beta-arrestin-1 as signal transducer in ET-1-dependent signalling pathways has been recently highlighted. Because several G protein-coupled receptors have been shown to activate signalling pathways in a beta-arrestin-dependent manner, in this study we explored whether beta-arrestin-1 is involved in a distinct signalling mechanism linking the ETAR to phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/integrin-linked kinase (ILK)/Akt in HEY ovarian cancer cells. The inhibitory effects of ZD4054 (zibotentan), a specific ETAR antagonist, in ET-1-dependent phosphorylation of ILK, Akt, and glycogen synthase kinase (GSK-3beta) demonstrated the involvement of the ETAR in these effects. By using a kinase assay, we demonstrate that beta-arrestin-1 silencing inhibits the ET-1-induced ILK activity in a time-dependent manner and downstream Akt and GSK-3beta phosphorylation. These results reveal that beta-arrestin-1 is implicated as an ETAR-transducer in the activation of ILK and Akt and in the inactivation of GSK-3beta in response to ET-1 and further support the role of beta-arrestin-1 as a multifunctional adaptor facilitating interprotein interactions critically involved in ETAR-mediated signalling that regulate invasive and metastatic behaviour of ovarian cancer.

Endothelins and their receptors as biological markers for oral cancer

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is one of the most common malignancies recognized nowadays, and represents a public health problem. Its early detection is the better alternative to provide a good quality of life for the patients. During the last years, several studies have identified potential biomarkers of OSCC progression and prognosis. Endothelins and their receptors are involved in several pathophysiological conditions and in various cancer types. The present review article discusses whether the endothelin system would represent a biomarker for OSCC.

Endothelin-1 inhibits prolyl hydroxylase domain 2 to activate hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha in melanoma cells

BACKGROUND

The endothelin B receptor (ET(B)R) promotes tumorigenesis and melanoma progression through activation by endothelin (ET)-1, thus representing a promising therapeutic target. The stability of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1alpha is essential for melanomagenesis and progression, and is controlled by site-specific hydroxylation carried out by HIF-prolyl hydroxylase domain (PHD) and subsequent proteosomal degradation.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here we found that in melanoma cells ET-1, ET-2, and ET-3 through ET(B)R, enhance the expression and activity of HIF-1alpha and HIF-2alpha that in turn regulate the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in response to ETs or hypoxia. Under normoxic conditions, ET-1 controls HIF-alpha stability by inhibiting its degradation, as determined by impaired degradation of a reporter gene containing the HIF-1alpha oxygen-dependent degradation domain encompassing the PHD-targeted prolines. In particular, ETs through ET(B)R markedly decrease PHD2 mRNA and protein levels and promoter activity. In addition, activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-dependent integrin linked kinase (ILK)-AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway is required for ET(B)R-mediated PHD2 inhibition, HIF-1alpha, HIF-2alpha, and VEGF expression. At functional level, PHD2 knockdown does not further increase ETs-induced in vitro tube formation of endothelial cells and melanoma cell invasiveness, demonstrating that these processes are regulated in a PHD2-dependent manner. In human primary and metastatic melanoma tissues as well as in cell lines, that express high levels of HIF-1alpha, ET(B)R expression is associated with low PHD2 levels. In melanoma xenografts, ET(B)R blockade by ET(B)R antagonist results in a concomitant reduction of tumor growth, angiogenesis, HIF-1alpha, and HIF-2alpha expression, and an increase in PHD2 levels.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study we identified the underlying mechanism by which ET-1, through the regulation of PHD2, controls HIF-1alpha stability and thereby regulates angiogenesis and melanoma cell invasion. These results further indicate that targeting ET(B)R may represent a potential therapeutic treatment of melanoma by impairing HIF-1alpha stability.

Modulation of microvascular smooth muscle adhesion and mechanotransduction by integrin-linked kinase

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we investigated the involvement of integrin-linked kinase (ILK) in the adhesion of arteriolar vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) to fibronectin (FN) and in the mechano-responsiveness of VSMC focal adhesions (FA).

METHODS

ILK was visualized in VSMC by expressing EGFP-ILK and it was knocked down using ILK-shRNA constructs. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to characterize VSMC interactions with FN, VSMC stiffness and to apply and measure forces at a VSMC single FA site.

RESULTS

ILK was localized to FA and silencing ILK promoted cell spreading, enhanced cell adhesion, reduced cell proliferation and reduced downstream phosphorylation of GSK-3beta and PKB/Akt. AFM studies demonstrated that silencing ILK enhanced alpha5beta1 integrin adhesion to FN and enhanced VSMC contraction in response to a pulling force applied at the level of a single FN-FA site.

CONCLUSIONS

ILK functions in arteriolar VSMC appear linked to multiple signaling pathways and processes that inhibit cell spreading, cell adhesion, FA formation, adhesion to FN and the mechano-responsiveness of FN-FA sites.

The importance of endothelin axis in initiation, progression, and therapy of ovarian cancer

The endothelin-1 (ET-1)/ET A receptor (ET(A)R) axis is involved in the pathobiology of different tumors, including ovarian carcinoma. Acting selectively on ET(A)R, ET-1 regulates, through multiple signaling pathways, mitogenesis, cell survival, angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, invasion, and metastatic dissemination. Moreover, ET-1/ET(A)R axis appears to be critical in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), providing a mechanism of escape to a new, less adverse niche, in which resistance to apoptosis ensures cell survival in conditions of stress in the primary tumor, and acquisition of "stemness" ensures generation of the critical mass required for tumor progression. Emerging experimental and preclinical data demonstrate that interfering with ET(A)R pathways provides an opportunity for the development of new mechanism-based antitumor strategies by using ET(A)R antagonists alone and in combination with cytotoxic drugs or molecular inhibitors. A specific ET(A)R antagonist in combination with standard chemotherapy is currently evaluated in clinical and translational studies to provide us with new options to treat ovarian cancer and to predict response to therapy. Deeper understanding of molecular mechanism activated by ET(A)R in ovarian cancer will be of paramount importance in the study of ET(A)R-targeted therapy that, regulating EMT and other tumor-associated processes, represents an attractive but challenging approach to improve clinical management of ovarian cancer.

Stromal endothelin B receptor-deficiency inhibits breast cancer growth and metastasis

The endothelin (ET) axis, often deregulated in cancers, is a promising target for anticancer strategies. Whereas previous investigations have focused mostly on ET action in malignant cells, we chose a model allowing separate assessment of the effects of ETs and their receptors ET(A)R and ET(B)R in the tumor cells and the stromal compartment, which is increasingly recognized as a key player in cancer progression. In homozygous spotting lethal rats (sl/sl), a model of constitutive ET(B)R deficiency, we showed significant reduction of growth and metastasis of MAT B III rat mammary adenocarcinoma cells overexpressing ET(A)R and ET-1 but negative for ET(B)R. Lack of stromal ET(B)R expression did not influence angiogenesis. However, it was correlated with diminished infiltration by tumor-associated macrophages and with reduced production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, both known as powerful promoters of tumor progression. These effects were almost completely abolished in transgenic sl/sl rats, wherein ET(B)R function is restored by expression of an intact ET(B)R transgene. This shows that tumor growth and metastasis are critically dependent on ET(B)R function in cells of the microenvironment and suggests that successful ETR antagonist therapy should also target the stromal component of ET signaling

Cardioprotective signaling by endothelin

The endothelin axis promotes vasoconstriction, suggesting that antagonists of endothelin signaling might be useful in treatment of heart failure. However, promising results from animal trials have not been recapitulated in heart failure patients. Here we review the role of major signaling pathways in the heart that are involved in cell survival initiated by ET-1. These pathways include mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidyl inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate kinase (PI3K-AKT), nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), and calcineurin signaling. A better understanding of endothelin-mediated signaling in cardiac cell survival may allow a reevaluation of endothelin receptor antagonists (ETRAs) in the treatment of heart failure.

DNAzymes to mouse beta1 integrin mRNA in vivo: targeting the tumor vasculature and retarding cancer growth

Previously, we designed a DNAzyme (beta1DE) targeting the human beta1 integrin subunit, which efficiently digested the mRNA of the beta1 integrin subunit and downregulated beta1 integrin expression in endothelial cells. This DNAzyme blocked the adhesion of endothelial cells and abolished their ability to form microcapillary tubes in Matrigel. In our present study, we demonstrate that beta1DE effectively inhibited neovascularization in Matrigel plugs (BALB/c mice, n=20) and solid human carcinoma tumors developed in nude mice (BALB/cA nude (nu-/-)-B6.Cg-Foxn1(nu)) (n=30) using prostate carcinoma cells PC-3 (n=15) and colon adenocarcinoma cells CX1.1 (n=15). When injected intratumorally, it significantly reduced the tumor size and number of microvessels developed by both CX1.1 and PC-3 cells within the 3 weeks of experiment duration. Thus, DNAzymes targeting beta1 integrin genes can inhibit multiple key tumorigenic processes in vitro and in vivo and may serve as useful anti-cancer agents.

Beta-arrestin links endothelin A receptor to beta-catenin signaling to induce ovarian cancer cell invasion and metastasis

The activation of endothelin-A receptor (ET(A)R) by endothelin-1 (ET-1) has a critical role in ovarian tumorigenesis and progression. To define the molecular mechanism in ET-1-induced tumor invasion and metastasis, we focused on beta-arrestins as scaffold and signaling proteins of G protein-coupled receptors. Here, we demonstrate that, in ovarian cancer cells, beta-arrestin is recruited to ET(A)R to form two trimeric complexes: one through the interaction with Src leading to epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) transactivation and beta-catenin Tyr phosphorylation, and the second through the physical association with axin, contributing to release and inactivation of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3beta and beta-catenin stabilization. The engagement of beta-arrestin in these two signaling complexes concurs to activate beta-catenin signaling pathways. We then demonstrate that silencing of both beta-arrestin-1 and beta-arrestin-2 inhibits ET(A)R-driven signaling, causing suppression of Src, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), AKT activation, as well as EGFR transactivation and a complete inhibition of ET-1-induced beta-catenin/TCF transcriptional activity and cell invasion. ET(A)R blockade with the specific ET(A)R antagonist ZD4054 abrogates the engagement of beta-arrestin in the interplay between ET(A)R and the beta-catenin pathway in the invasive program. Finally, ET(A)R is expressed in 85% of human ovarian cancers and is preferentially co-expressed with beta-arrestin-1 in the advanced tumors. In a xenograft model of ovarian metastasis, HEY cancer cells expressing beta-arrestin-1 mutant metastasize at a reduced rate, highlighting the importance of this molecule in promoting metastases. ZD4054 treatment significantly inhibits metastases, suggesting that specific ET(A)R antagonists, by disabling multiple signaling activated by ET(A)R/beta-arrestin, may represent new therapeutic opportunities for ovarian cancer.

Integrin-linked kinase--essential roles in physiology and cancer biology

Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) is a multifunctional intracellular effector of cell-matrix interactions and regulates many cellular processes, including growth, proliferation, survival, differentiation, migration, invasion and angiogenesis. The use of recently developed Cre-lox-driven recombination and RNA-interference technologies has enabled the evaluation of the physiological roles of ILK in several major organ systems. Significant developmental and tissue-homeostasis defects occur when the gene that encodes ILK is deleted, whereas the expression of ILK is often elevated in human malignancies. Although the cause(s) of ILK overexpression remain to be fully elucidated, accumulating evidence suggests that its oncogenic capacity derives from its regulation of several downstream targets that provide cells with signals that promote proliferation, survival and migration, supporting the concept that ILK is a relevant therapeutic target in human cancer. Furthermore, a global analysis of the ILK 'interactome' has yielded several novel interactions, and has revealed exciting and unexpected cellular functions of ILK that might have important implications for the development of effective therapeutic agents.

The endothelin axis in cancer: the promise and the challenges of molecularly targeted therapy

The endothelin (ET) axis, which includes ET-1, ET-2, ET-3, and 2 G protein-coupled receptor subtypes, ET AR and ET BR, promotes growth and progression of a variety of tumors, such as prostatic, ovarian, renal, pulmonary, colorectal, cervical, breast, lung, bladder, endometrial carcinoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, brain tumors, and melanoma. Acting on selective receptors, ET-1 regulates mitogenesis, cell survival, angiogenesis, bone remodeling, stimulation of nociceptors, tumor-infiltrating immune cells, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, invasion, and metastatic dissemination. At the molecular level, endothelin receptor antagonists, besides providing ideal tools for dissecting the ET axis, have demonstrated their potential in developing novel therapeutic strategies. Emerging experimental and clinical data demonstrate that interfering with endothelin receptors provides an opportunity for the development of rational combinatorial approaches using endothelin receptor antagonists in combination with chemotherapy or molecularly targeted therapy.

Contributions of integrin-linked kinase to breast cancer metastasis and tumourigenesis

Metastasis contributes to more than 90% of mortality in breast cancer. Critical stages in the development of aggressive breast cancer include growth of the primary tumours, and their abilities to spread to distant organs, colonize and establish an independent blood supply. The integrin family of cell adhesion receptors is essential to breast cancer progression. Furthermore, integrin-linked kinase can ‘convert’ localized breast cancer cells into invasive and metastatic cells. Upon stimulation by growth factors and chemokine ligands, integrin-linked kinase mediates the phosphorylation of Akt Ser⁴⁷³, and glycogen synthase kinase-3. The current notion is that overexpression of integrin-linked kinase resulted in an invasive, metastatic phenotype in several cancer model systems in vivo and in vitro, thus, implicating a role for integrin-linked kinase in oncogenic transformation, angiogenesis and metastasis. Here, we will review the role of integrin-linked kinase in breast cancer metastasis. Elucidation of signalling events important for breast tumour metastasis should provide insights into successful breast cancer therapies.

Alpha-v integrins as therapeutic targets in oncology

Integrins are heterodimeric cell adhesion receptors that mediate intercellular communication through cell-extracellular matrix interactions and cell-cell interactions. Integrins have been demonstrated to play a direct role in cancer progression, specifically in tumor cell survival, tumor angiogenesis, and metastasis. Therefore, agents targeted against integrin function have potential as effective anticancer therapies. Numerous anti-integrin agents, including monoclonal antibodies and small-molecule inhibitors, are in clinical development for the treatment of solid and hematologic tumors. This review focuses on the role of alpha(v) integrins in cancer progression, the current status of integrin-targeted agents in development, and strategies for the clinical development of anti-integrin therapies.

Combined targeting of endothelin A receptor and epidermal growth factor receptor in ovarian cancer shows enhanced antitumor activity

Ovarian carcinomas overexpress endothelin A receptors (ET(A)R) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR). In these cells, endothelin-1 (ET-1) triggers mitogenic and invasive signaling pathways that are in part mediated by EGFR transactivation. Combined targeting of ET(A)R, by the specific ET(A)R antagonist ZD4054, and of EGFR by the EGFR inhibitor gefitinib (IRESSA), may offer improvements in ovarian carcinoma treatment. In HEY and OVCA 433 ovarian carcinoma cells, ET-1 or EGF induced rapid activation of EGFR, p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and AKT. ZD4054 was able to reduce the ET-1-induced EGFR transactivation. Gefitinib significantly inhibited EGF- and ET-1-induced EGFR phosphorylation, but incompletely reduced the ET-1-induced activation of downstream targets. ZD4054 plus gefitinib resulted in a greater inhibition of EGFR, MAPK, and AKT phosphorylation, indicating the critical role of these interconnected signaling proteins. ZD4054 effectively inhibited cell proliferation, invasiveness, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion. Concomitantly, ZD4054 enhanced apoptosis and E-cadherin promoter activity and expression. In both cell lines, the drug combination resulted in a significant decrease in cell proliferation (65%), invasion (52%), and VEGF production (50%), accompanied by a 2-fold increase in apoptosis. The coadministration of ZD4054 enhanced the efficacy of gefitinib leading to partial (82%) or complete tumor regression on HEY ovarian carcinoma xenografts. Antitumor effects were paralleled by biochemical and immunohistologic evidence of decreased vascularization, Ki-67, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), VEGF, MAPK and EGFR, and enhanced E-cadherin expression. The cross-signaling between the EGFR/ET(A)R pathways provides a rationale to combine EGFR inhibitors with ET(A)R antagonists, identifying new effective therapeutic opportunities for ovarian cancer.