Occupational asthma to carmine in a butcher

A Review of the Chemistry and Biological Activities of Natural Colorants, Dyes, and Pigments: Challenges, and Opportunities for Food, Cosmetics, and Pharmaceutical Application

Natural pigments are important sources for the screening of bioactive lead compounds. This article reviewed the chemistry and therapeutic potentials of over 570 colored molecules from plants, fungi, bacteria, insects, algae, and marine sources. Moreover, related biological activities, advanced extraction, and identification approaches were reviewed. A variety of biological activities, including cytotoxicity against cancer cells, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, anti-microbial, antiviral, and anti-protozoal activities, have been reported for different pigments. Considering their structural backbone, they were classified as naphthoquinones, carotenoids, flavonoids, xanthones, anthocyanins, benzotropolones, alkaloids, terpenoids, isoprenoids, and non-isoprenoids. Alkaloid pigments were mostly isolated from bacteria and marine sources, while flavonoids were mostly found in plants and mushrooms. Colored quinones and xanthones were mostly extracted from plants and fungi, while colored polyketides and terpenoids are often found in marine sources and fungi. Carotenoids are mostly distributed among bacteria, followed by fungi and plants. The pigments isolated from insects have different structures, but among them, carotenoids and quinone/xanthone are the most important. Considering good manufacturing practices, the current permitted natural colorants are: Carotenoids (canthaxanthin, β-carotene, β-apo-8'-carotenal, annatto, astaxanthin) and their sources, lycopene, anthocyanins, betanin, chlorophyllins, spirulina extract, carmine and cochineal extract, henna, riboflavin, pyrogallol, logwood extract, guaiazulene, turmeric, and soy leghemoglobin.

Food Color Additives in Hazardous Consequences of Human Health: An Overview

Food color additives are used to make food more appetizing. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) permitted nine artificial colorings in foods, drugs, and cosmetics, whereas the European Union (EU) approved five artificial colors (E-104, 122, 124, 131, and 142) for food. However, these synthetic coloring materials raise various health hazards. The present review aimed to summarize the toxic effects of these coloring food additives on the brain, liver, kidney, lungs, urinary bladder, and thyroid gland. In this respect, we aimed to highlight the scientific evidence and the crucial need to assess potential health hazards of all colors used in food on human and nonhuman biota for better scrutiny. Blue 1 causes kidney tumor in mice, and there is evidence of death due to ingestion through a feeding tube. Blue 2 and Citrus Red 2 cause brain and urinary bladder tumors, respectively, whereas other coloring additives may cause different types of cancers and numerous adverse health effects. In light of this, this review focuses on the different possible adverse health effects caused by these food coloring additives, and possible ways to mitigate or avoid the damage they may cause. We hope that the data collected from in vitro or in vivo studies and from clinical investigations related to the possible health hazards of food color additives will be helpful to both researchers and the food industry in the future.

Reported Cases and Diagnostics of Occupational Insect Allergy: A Systematic Review

A significant part of adult-onset asthma is caused by occupational exposure to both high- and low-molecular-mass agents. Insects are occasionally described to cause occupational allergy in professions including anglers and fishers, laboratory workers, employees of aquaculture companies, farmers, bakers, sericulture workers and pet shop workers. Occupational insect allergies are often respiratory, causing asthma or rhinoconjunctivitis, but can be cutaneous as well. The European Union recently approved three insect species for human consumption, enabling an industry to develop where more employees could be exposed to insect products. This review overviews knowledge on occupational insect allergy risks and the tools used to diagnose employees. Despite the limited availability of commercial occupational insect allergy diagnostics, 60.9% of 164 included reports used skin prick tests and 63.4% of reports used specific IgE tests. In 21.9% of reports, a more elaborate diagnosis of occupational asthma was made by specific inhalation challenges or peak expiratory flow measurements at the workplace. In some work environments, 57% of employees were sensitized, and no less than 60% of employees reported work-related symptoms. Further development and optimization of specific diagnostics, together with strong primary prevention, may be vital to the health conditions of workers in the developing insect industry.

Patch Testing With Carmine 2.5% in Petrolatum by the North American Contact Dermatitis Group, 2011-2012

BACKGROUND

Carmine is a natural red dye that may cause allergic contact dermatitis.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to analyze patch test reactions to carmine (2.5% in petrolatum) and characterize carmine-positive patients.

METHODS

This study conducted a retrospective analysis of North American Contact Dermatitis Group data compiled between 2011 and 2012.

RESULTS

Of 4240 patients patch tested to carmine, 132 (3.1%) had reactions with a final interpretation of "allergic" (positive). Carmine-positive patients were significantly more likely to be female (77.7% vs 68.3%; P = 0.0237) and have a final primary diagnosis of allergic contact dermatitis (74.8% vs 47.2%; P < 0.0001). As compared with carmine-negative patients, carmine-positive patients were significantly more likely to have involvement of all facial sites combined (48.1% vs 29.9%; P < 0.0001) and the lips (7.6% vs 3.6%; P = 0.0166). At final reading, most carmine reactions were weak (+; 64.9%). Approximately half (53.4%) were currently clinically relevant; identified sources were primarily personal care products (77.1%), especially makeup (31.4%) and lip products (8.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Weak patch test reactions to carmine should be interpreted with caution. Allergic contact dermatitis to carmine should be suspected in women with facial and/or lip dermatitis, especially those using carmine-containing cosmetics.

Unusual allergen in a butcher with respiratory symptoms

A 37-year-old butcher developed respiratory symptoms during sausage and chicken production in a large company. In addition to various spices, the enzyme transglutaminase was a possible cause. The lung function test showed mild partial reversible airway obstruction and severe bronchial hyperresponsiveness. The IgE test showed sensitizations to various spice mixtures, coriander (0.74 kU/L), and to the ImmunoCAP-bound transglutaminase preparation from the workplace (7.12 kU/L). The skin prick tests with this transglutaminase were also positive. In the immunoblot of this preparation, a 40-kD protein reacted with the patient’s IgE and was identified as transglutaminase from Streptomyces mobaraensis by inhibition experiments. This is the first case of a butcher with an allergy to transglutaminase. After moving to a small enterprise without enzyme use, his symptoms improved. Sensitization and the course of the symptoms indicate a dominant role of transglutaminase in the patient’s allergic asthma.

Biological Effects of Food Coloring in In Vivo and In Vitro Model Systems

(1) Background: The suitability of certain food colorings is nowadays in discussion because of the effects of these compounds on human health. For this reason, in the present work, the biological effects of six worldwide used food colorings (Riboflavin, Tartrazine, Carminic Acid, Erythrosine, Indigotine, and Brilliant Blue FCF) were analyzed using two model systems. (2) Methods: In vivo toxicity, antitoxicity, and longevity assays using the model organism Drosophila melanogaster and in vitro cytotoxicity, DNA fragmentation, and methylation status assays using HL-60 tumor human cell line were carried out. (3) Results: Our in vivo results showed safe effects in Drosophila for all the food coloring treatments, non-significant protective potential against an oxidative toxin, and different effects on the lifespan of flies. The in vitro results in HL-60 cells, showed that the tested food colorings increased tumor cell growth but did not induce any DNA damage or modifications in the DNA methylation status at their acceptable daily intake (ADI) concentrations. (4) Conclusions: From the in vivo and in vitro studies, these results would support the idea that a high chronic intake of food colorings throughout the entire life is not advisable.

Contact Dermatitis to Carmine

: Carmine is a widely used "natural" food additive that has been reported to provoke both an immediate hypersensitivity and a delayed systemic response with cutaneous expression. Systemic contact dermatitis describes the hypersensitivity reaction following systemic re-exposure of the inciting allergen in previously sensitized individuals. In individuals with recalcitrant dermatitis and a positive carmine intolerance history and/or patch test, it is important to consider a trial topical and dietary elimination of carmine-associated products and foods.

Allergic and immunologic reactions to food additives

For centuries, food additives have been used for flavouring, colouring and extension of the useful shelf life of food, as well as the promotion of food safety. During the last 20 years, the studies implicating the additives contained in foods and medicine as a causative factor of allergic reactions have been proliferated considerably. In this review, we aimed to overview all of the food additives which were approved to consume in EU and find out how common and serious allergic reactions come into existence following the consuming of food additives.

Allergenicity of casein containing chalk in milk allergic schoolchildren

BACKGROUND

Nondietary exposure to milk proteins may be a risk for children who do not outgrow milk allergy by school age.

OBJECTIVE

To study the allergenicity of casein containing chalk.

METHODS

A 6-year-old, milk allergic child developed asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis while in school. The suspected cause was dust-free chalk containing casein. To study the relationship of dust-free chalk containing casein with asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis, 13 additional milk allergic patients were studied: 3 school-aged children, 8 preschool-aged infants, and 2 children with outgrown milk allergy. Skin tests and/or specific IgE with chalk and casein were performed. A chalk use test was performed in older children. Milk allergens contained in chalk were characterized by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, immunoblot, and IgE inhibition experiments.

RESULTS

All school-aged, milk allergic children were exposed to chalk and reported symptoms attributed to chalk exposure. The skin test result to chalk was positive in 5 of 12 cases, and the specific IgE test result was positive in all 12 study participants in which it was performed. Casein strongly inhibited the binding of IgE to chalk. Chalk sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed proteins with molecular weight similar to caseins. Immunoblot demonstrated strong binding of IgE to chalk in a blurred pattern and a band at 30 kDa, inhibited by casein. The chalk challenge test result was positive in 2 school-age children who had a positive skin test result to chalk. Their symptoms improved after avoidance of chalk in the school. In 2 other cases in which the challenge test result was negative, chalk was reintroduced without problems.

CONCLUSION

Inhalation of chalk dust containing casein can induce asthma symptoms in milk allergic patients. Hidden and nondietary sources of exposure should always be considered in food allergic patients.

Molecular cloning, expression, and characterization of a major 38-kd cochineal allergen

BACKGROUND

Carmine is a natural red pigment obtained from dried gravid female cochineal insects (Dactylopius coccus or Coccus cacti). There have been several reports of allergies to carmine, but the major allergens responsible have not been identified.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the major allergenic proteins in cochineal.

METHODS

Immunoblots of purified cochineal extract were probed with sera from 3 patients with allergy. Partial amino acid sequences were determined for the proteins bound by IgE, and the corresponding cDNA, containing a complete coding region, was cloned by 5' and 3' rapid cDNA extension and PCR. The recombinant protein was expressed in yeast and subjected to immunoblotting.

RESULTS

We identified a full-length cDNA encoding a protein, which we named CC38K, with 335 amino acids and a molecular mass calculated as 38 kd. This amino acid sequence included all the partial amino acid sequences obtained from the purified proteins identified by IgE from patients with allergy. Recombinant CC38K protein was recognized by patients' sera, indicating that this is a major allergen present in carmine. The CC38K sequence showed homology to phospholipases.

CONCLUSION

We have, for the first time, identified the major allergen in cochineal extract. This protein may be a phospholipase or related enzyme, both of which are known to be allergens in other insects.