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Shattuck EC, Perrotte JK, Daniels CL, Xu X, Sunil TS. The Contribution of Sociocultural Factors in Shaping Self-Reported Sickness Behavior. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:4. [PMID: 32038193 PMCID: PMC6992553 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Sickness behavior is an evolutionarily conserved phenomenon found across a diverse range of animals involving a change in motivational priorities to theoretically maximize energetic investment in immune function and recovery. Typical components of sickness behavior include reduced sociability and activity, changes in diet, and depressed affect. Importantly, however, sickness behavior appears to be subject to other demands of life history in animal models, including reproduction and offspring survival. Thus, "feeling sick" is often context dependent with possible effects on morbidity and mortality. While humans may not always face the same life history trade-offs, sociocultural norms and values may similarly shape sickness behavior by establishing internalized parameters for "socially appropriate sickness." We explore the role of these factors in shaping sickness behavior by surveying a national U.S. sample (n = 1,259). Self-reported and recalled sickness behavior was measured using the SicknessQ instrument, which has previously been validated against experimentally induced sickness behavior. After post-stratification weighting and correction for Type I error, generalized linear models showed that sickness behavior is significantly affected by various factors across sex and racial/ethnic groupings. Income below the national mean (b = 1.85, adj. p = 0.025), stoic endurance of pain and discomfort (b = 1.61, adj. p < 0.001), and depressive symptomology (b = 0.53, adj. p < 0.001) were each associated with greater sickness behavior scores. Familism (b = 1.59, adj. p = 0.008) was positively associated with sickness behavior in men, but not women. Endurance of pain and discomfort was associated with greater sickness behavior in Whites only (b = 1.94, adj. p = 0.002), while familism approached significance in African Americans only (b = 1.86, adj. p = 0.057). These findings may reflect different social contexts of sickness across demographic groups, which may in turn have important implications for pathogen transmission and recovery times, potentially contributing to health disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C. Shattuck
- Institute for Health Disparities Research, College of Liberal and Fine Arts, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Jessica K. Perrotte
- Department of Psychology, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, United States
| | - Colton L. Daniels
- Department of Sociology, College of Liberal and Fine Arts, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Xiaohe Xu
- Department of Sociology, College of Liberal and Fine Arts, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
- School of Public Administration, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Thankam S. Sunil
- Institute for Health Disparities Research, College of Liberal and Fine Arts, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Department of Sociology, College of Liberal and Fine Arts, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
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Rogers JP, Pollak TA, Blackman G, David AS. Catatonia and the immune system: a review. Lancet Psychiatry 2019; 6:620-630. [PMID: 31196793 PMCID: PMC7185541 DOI: 10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30190-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Catatonia is a psychomotor disorder featuring stupor, posturing, and echophenomena. This Series paper examines the evidence for immune dysregulation in catatonia. Activation of the innate immune system is associated with mutism, withdrawal, and psychomotor retardation, which constitute the neurovegetative features of catatonia. Evidence is sparse and conflicting for acute-phase activation in catatonia, and whether this feature is secondary to immobility is unclear. Various viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections have been associated with catatonia, but it is primarily linked to CNS infections. The most common cause of autoimmune catatonia is N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis, which can account for the full spectrum of catatonic features. Autoimmunity appears to cause catatonia less by systemic inflammation than by the downstream effects of specific actions on extracellular antigens. The specific association with NMDAR encephalitis supports a hypothesis of glutamatergic hypofunction in catatonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Rogers
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; South London and Maudsley National Health Service Foundation Trust, Bethlem Royal Hospital, UK.
| | - Thomas A Pollak
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; South London and Maudsley National Health Service Foundation Trust, Bethlem Royal Hospital, UK
| | - Graham Blackman
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; South London and Maudsley National Health Service Foundation Trust, Bethlem Royal Hospital, UK
| | - Anthony S David
- Institute of Mental Health, University College London, London, UK
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Savitz J, Harrison NA. Interoception and Inflammation in Psychiatric Disorders. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2018; 3:514-524. [PMID: 29884282 PMCID: PMC5995132 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite a historical focus on neurally mediated interoceptive signaling mechanisms, humoral (and even cellular) signals also play an important role in communicating bodily physiological state to the brain. These signaling pathways can perturb neuronal structure, chemistry, and function, leading to discrete changes in behavior. They are also increasingly implicated in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. The importance of these humoral signaling pathways is perhaps most powerfully illustrated in the context of infection and inflammation. Here we provide an overview of how interaction of immune activation of neural and humoral interoceptive mechanisms mediates discrete changes in brain and behavior and highlight how activation of these pathways at specific points in neural development may predispose to psychiatric disorder. As our mechanistic understanding of these interoceptive pathways continues to emerge, it is revealing novel therapeutic targets, potentially heralding an exciting new era of immunotherapies in psychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Savitz
- Laureate Institute for Brain Research, the University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma; Oxley College of Health Sciences, the University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma
| | - Neil A Harrison
- Clinical Imaging Sciences Centre, Department of Neuroscience, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom; Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom; Sussex Partnership NHS Foundation Trust, Brighton, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
Systemic inflammation rapidly impairs mood, motivation, and cognition inducing a stereotyped cluster of symptoms collectively known as "sickness behaviors." When inflammation is severe or chronic, these behavioral changes can appear indistinguishable from major depressive disorder (MDD). Human and rodent neuroimaging combined with experimental inflammatory challenges has clarified the neural circuitry associated with many of the key features of inflammation-induced-sickness behavior, and in so doing revealed often-remarkable commonalities with circuit abnormalities observed in MDD. This review aims to provide the first synthesis of this work illustrating areas of convergence and divergence with the MDD literature as well as highlighting areas for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A Harrison
- Department of Neuroscience, Brighton & Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9RR, UK.
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9RR, UK.
- Sussex Partnership NHS Foundation Trust, Swandean, West Sussex, BN13 3E, UK.
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Matthews G, Warm JS, Dember WN, Mizoguchi H, Smith AP. The Common Cold Impairs Visual Attention, Psychomotor Performance and Task Engagement. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/154193120104501813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A study was conducted to test the effects of naturally-occurring colds on visual attention, psychomotor performance and subjective indices of stress. 204 participants performed a battery of tasks assessing simple reaction time, focused attention, categoric search and vigilance, on two separate occasions. Affective, motivational and cognitive stress state dimensions were measured using a validated questionnaire. On the first occasion, all participants were healthy. On the second occasion, approximately half the sample suffered from a cold. Comparison of cold sufferers with healthy controls showed significant cold effects. In the cold group, response was slower on simple reaction time and focused attention tasks, and detection rate on the vigilance task was lower. Colds reduced subjective task engagement (e.g., lower energy and motivation) and increased distress (e.g., more negative mood). Regression analysis indicated a direct effect of colds on simple reaction time, whereas the cold effect on vigilance appeared to be statistically mediated by reduced task engagement. It is concluded that colds can produce operationally-significant performance deficits on a variety of attentional tasks.
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Smith AP. Acute Tension-Type Headaches Are Associated with Impaired Cognitive Function and More Negative Mood. Front Neurol 2016; 7:42. [PMID: 27065939 PMCID: PMC4809881 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2016.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Research has shown that migraine is often associated with memory problems. There have, however, been few studies of tension-type headache (TTH) and cognition. People who report frequent headaches often report high levels of negative affect. However, less is known about the acute effects of TTH on mood. To address these gaps in our knowledge, two studies examined the effects of acute TTH on -cognitive performance and mood. METHODS Both studies involved one group of participants completing a battery of tasks when they had a TTH and when they had no headache. Another group (the control) was headache free on both occasions. Duration of the headache was >30 min and <4 h. In the "no headache" condition, the participants were headache free for at least 24 h. In the first study, 12 participants (6 with TTH and 6 controls) completed a computerized battery measuring mood and aspects of cognition. In the second study, 22 participants (7 TTH, 5 after TTH, and 10 controls) completed paper and pencil mood and cognitive tasks. RESULTS In the first study, having a headache was associated with an increase in negative affect both before and after the tasks. Three performance tasks showed impairments when the participants had headaches: logical reasoning was slower and less accurate; retrieval from semantic memory was slower; and reaction times in the categorical search task were slower. Results from the second study confirmed the global increase in negative affect when the person has a TTH. The results confirmed the impairments in the logical reasoning and semantic processing tasks, and also showed that those with a TTH had greater psychomotor slowing and were more easily distracted. Effects did not continue after the headache had gone. CONCLUSION Two small-scale studies have shown that TTH is associated with negative affect and impaired cognitive function. It is now of interest to determine whether OTC treatment can remove these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Paul Smith
- Centre for Occupational and Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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An Investigation of the Acute Effects of Oligofructose-Enriched Inulin on Subjective Wellbeing, Mood and Cognitive Performance. Nutrients 2015; 7:8887-96. [PMID: 26516908 PMCID: PMC4663569 DOI: 10.3390/nu7115441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 09/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Inulin is a natural food component found in many plants that are part of the human diet (e.g., leeks, onions, wheat, garlic, chicory and artichokes). It is added to many foods and is used to increase dietary fibre, replace fats or carbohydrates, and as a prebiotic (a stimulant of beneficial bacteria in the colon). Oligofructose, which is also present in these foods, produces similar effects and most research has used a combination of these products. A previous study (Smith, 2005) investigated the effects of regular consumption of oligofructose-enriched inulin on wellbeing, mood, and cognitive performance in humans. The results showed that oligofructose-enriched inulin had no negative effects but that it did not improve wellbeing, mood, or performance. The aim of the present study was to examine the acute effects of oligofructose-enriched inulin (5 g) over a 4 h period during which the participants remained in the laboratory. A double blind placebo (maltodextrin) controlled study (N = 47) was carried out with the order of conditions being counterbalanced and the two sessions a week apart. On each test day mood and cognitive performance were assessed at baseline (at 8:00) and then following inulin or placebo (at 11:00). Prior to the second test session (at 10:30) participants completed a questionnaire assessing their physical symptoms and mental health during the test morning. The inulin and placebo were provided in powder form in 5 g sachets. Volunteers consumed one sachet in decaffeinated tea or decaffeinated coffee with breakfast (9:00). Questionnaire results showed that on the day that the inulin was consumed, participants felt happier, had less indigestion and were less hungry than when they consumed the placebo. As for performance and mood tasks, the most consistent effects were on the episodic memory tasks where consumption of inulin was associated with greater accuracy on a recognition memory task, and improved recall performance (immediate and delayed). Further research is required to identify the mechanisms that underlie this effect with glucose metabolism being one candidate.
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Effects of upper respiratory tract illnesses, ibuprofen and caffeine on reaction time and alertness. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:1963-74. [PMID: 24287602 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-3339-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Compared with healthy individuals, those with upper respiratory tract illnesses (URTIs) report reduced alertness and have slower reaction times. It is important to evaluate medication that can remove this behavioural malaise. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to compare the effects of a combination of ibuprofen plus caffeine with ibuprofen and caffeine alone, and placebo on malaise associated with URTIs, as measured by psychomotor performance and mood testing. METHODS Volunteers were randomly assigned to one of four medication conditions as follows: 200 mg ibuprofen and 100 mg caffeine; 200 mg ibuprofen; 100 mg caffeine; placebo. A single oral dose was given and testing followed for 3 h. Efficacy variables were based on the volunteers' performance, measured by psychomotor performance and mood. RESULTS The pre-drug results confirmed that those with an URTI had a more negative mood and impaired performance. Results from the simple reaction time task, at both 55- and 110-min post-dosing, showed that a single-dose of caffeinated products (I200/C100 and CAF100) led to significantly faster reaction times than IBU200 and placebo. These effects were generally confirmed with the other performance tasks. Subjective measures showed that the combination of ibuprofen and caffeine was superior to the other conditions. There were no serious adverse events reported, and study medication was well tolerated. CONCLUSIONS The results from the post-drug assessments suggest that a combination of ibuprofen and caffeine was the optimum treatment for malaise associated with URTIs in that it had significant effects on objective performance and subjective measures.
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Riis JL, Out D, Dorn LD, Beal SJ, Denson LA, Pabst S, Jaedicke K, Granger DA. Salivary cytokines in healthy adolescent girls: Intercorrelations, stability, and associations with serum cytokines, age, and pubertal stage. Dev Psychobiol 2013; 56:797-811. [PMID: 23868603 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Theoretically, the measurement of cytokines in saliva may have utility for studies of brain, behavior, and immunity in youth. Cytokines in saliva and serum were analyzed across three annual assessments in healthy adolescent girls (N = 114, 11-17 years at enrollment). Samples were assayed for GM-CSF, IFNγ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, TNFα, adiponectin, and cotinine. Results revealed: (1) cytokine levels, except IFNγ and IL-10, were detectable in saliva, and salivary levels, except IL-8 and IL-1β, were lower than serum levels; (2) salivary cytokine levels were lower in older girls and positively associated with adiponectin; (3) compared to serum levels, the correlations between salivary cytokines were higher, but salivary cytokines were less stable across years; and (4) except for IL-1β, there were no significant serum-saliva associations. Variation in basal salivary cytokine levels in healthy adolescent girls reflect compartmentalized activity of the oral mucosal immune system, rather than systemic cytokine activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna L Riis
- Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Twenty-five years of research on the behavioural malaise associated with influenza and the common cold. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013; 38:744-51. [PMID: 23021498 PMCID: PMC7130811 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2012] [Revised: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Minor illnesses such as the common cold and influenza are frequent and widespread. As well as specific symptoms such as nasal problems and fever, these illnesses are associated with a behavioural malaise. One feature of this malaise is reduced alertness and this has been confirmed using subjective reports and objective measures of performance. Such effects have been obtained with both experimentally induced infections and in studies of naturally occurring illnesses. The mechanisms underlying the effects are unclear but possibly reflect effects of cytokines on the CNS which result in changes in neurotransmitter functioning that lead to reduced alertness. The malaise induced by these illnesses has many real-life consequences and activities such as driving and safety at work may be at risk. These illnesses not only have direct effects on performance and mood but also make the person more sensitive to effects of other negative influences such as noise, alcohol and prolonged work. Countermeasures include ingestion of caffeine and other drugs known to increase alertness.
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Smith AP. Behavioral effects of upper respiratory tract illnesses: a consideration of possible underlying cognitive mechanisms. Behav Sci (Basel) 2012; 2:38-49. [PMID: 25379214 PMCID: PMC4217577 DOI: 10.3390/bs2010038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research has shown that both experimentally induced upper respiratory tract illnesses (URTIs) and naturally occurring URTIs influence mood and performance. The present study investigated possible cognitive mechanisms underlying the URTI-performance changes. Those who developed a cold (N = 47) had significantly faster, but less accurate, performance than those who remained healthy (N = 54). Illness had no effect on manipulations designed to influence encoding, response organisation (stimulus-response compatilibility) or response preparation. Similarly, there was no evidence that different components of working memory were impaired. Overall, the present research confirms that URTIs can have an effect on performance efficiency. Further research is required to identify the physiological and behavioral mechanisms underlying these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Smith
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Centre for Occupational and Health Psychology, 63 Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AS, UK
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Mahoney T, Ball P. Common Respiratory Tract Infections as Psychological Entities: A Review of the Mood and Performance Effects of Being Ill. AUSTRALIAN PSYCHOLOGIST 2011; 37:86-94. [PMID: 32313294 PMCID: PMC7159681 DOI: 10.1080/00050060210001706726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The clinical manifestations associated with colds and influenza overshadow the equally important mood and performance impairments. While decreased alertness and increased anxiety can be considered side effects of symptomatology, symptoms alone may not be responsible for the psychomotor and attention deficits of colds and influenza, respectively. An alternative hypothesis, as proposed in this review, suggests that the immune response, in the form of a cytokine cascade, may be responsible for both the physical and psychological symptoms. In particular, patterns of cytokine production for each infection will dictate the symptoms and performance deficits both within and between viruses. This hypothesis can be extended to incorporate infectious mononucleosis, as well as colds and influenza. The efficacy of symptom‐based overthe‐counter medications is then called into question.
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Hübner NO, Hübner C, Wodny M, Kampf G, Kramer A. Effectiveness of alcohol-based hand disinfectants in a public administration: impact on health and work performance related to acute respiratory symptoms and diarrhoea. BMC Infect Dis 2010; 10:250. [PMID: 20735818 PMCID: PMC2939638 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-10-250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2009] [Accepted: 08/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The economical impact of absenteeism and reduced productivity due to acute infectious respiratory and gastrointestinal disease is normally not in the focus of surveillance systems and may therefore be underestimated. However, large community studies in Europe and USA have shown that communicable diseases have a great impact on morbidity and lead to millions of lost days at work, school and university each year. Hand disinfection is acknowledged as key element for infection control, but its effect in open, work place settings is unclear. Methods Our study involved a prospective, controlled, intervention-control group design to assess the epidemiological and economical impact of alcohol-based hand disinfectants use at work place. Volunteers in public administrations in the municipality of the city of Greifswald were randomized in two groups. Participants in the intervention group were provided with alcoholic hand disinfection, the control group was unchanged. Respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms and days of work were recorded based on a monthly questionnaire over one year. On the whole, 1230 person months were evaluated. Results Hand disinfection reduced the number of episodes of illness for the majority of the registered symptoms. This effect became statistically significant for common cold (OR = 0.35 [0.17 - 0.71], p = 0.003), fever (OR = 0.38 [0.14-0.99], p = 0.035) and coughing (OR = 0.45 [0.22 - 0.91], p = 0.02). Participants in the intervention group reported less days ill for most symptoms assessed, e.g. colds (2.07 vs. 2.78%, p = 0.008), fever (0.25 vs. 0.31%, p = 0.037) and cough (1.85 vs. 2.00%, p = 0.024). For diarrhoea, the odds ratio for being absent became statistically significant too (0.11 (CI 0.01 - 0.93). Conclusion Hand disinfection can easily be introduced and maintained outside clinical settings as part of the daily hand hygiene. Therefore it appears as an interesting, cost-efficient method within the scope of company health support programmes. Trial registration number ISRCTN96340690
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils-Olaf Hübner
- Institute of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, Walter-Rathenau-Strasse 49 A 17487 Greifswald, Germany.
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Abstract
Many people who complain of tinnitus say that the noises impair their mental concentration. This complaint was investigated by self-report (primarily the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire) and by means of five cognitive tasks, four presented via laptop computer and one given manually. The tasks measured performance under single- and dual-task conditions and included tests of sustained attention, reaction time, verbal fluency and immediate and delayed memory. Two groups of outpatients attending audiological clinics (tinnitus, n = 43; hearing impairment, n = 17) were compared with non-clinical volunteers (n = 32). The results replicated earlier findings that tinnitus outpatients report significantly more everyday cognitive failures than do controls. The tinnitus group responded significantly more slowly than the two control groups on the variable fore-period reaction time task under dual-task conditions. In general, comparisons between the groups on other tasks showed equivalent performance, but both clinical groups performed more poorly than non-clinical controls on verbal fluency. We conclude that cognitive inefficiency in tinnitus participants is related to the control of attentional processes, consistent with our earlier theoretical speculation about the nature of tinnitus complaint and with published findings on the effects of chronic pain on cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R S Hallam
- School of Psychology, University of East London, UK.
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Bucks RS, Gidron Y, Harris P, Teeling J, Wesnes KA, Perry VH. Selective effects of upper respiratory tract infection on cognition, mood and emotion processing: a prospective study. Brain Behav Immun 2008; 22:399-407. [PMID: 17967526 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2007.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2007] [Revised: 08/30/2007] [Accepted: 09/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Observational and experimentally induced infection studies show that upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) affect mood and cognition. This study tested the effects of naturally occurring URTI on cognition, mood and emotional processing, using a prospective design, with a broader array of tests than previous research, and with well matched control participants. Eighty participants (42 younger, M age 20.3 years; 38 older, M age 64.3 years) underwent neuropsychological assessment at baseline. Once a participant had URTI symptoms, s/he and a healthy, matched participant were retested. The Cognitive Drug Research computerised assessment battery was used to assess Power and Continuity of Attention, Quality of Episodic and Working Memory, Speed of Memory, and mood. Additionally, emotional processing was measured on matching of emotionally-negative faces with faces and faces with labels. Forty-two of 80 participants were matched (21 well, 21 ill). Well participants improved in Speed of Memory and face-label reaction time. Despite a lack of fever, ill participants demonstrated significantly smaller improvements. Older participants reported feeling less alert if ill, and less stressed if well, than at baseline. All ill participants reported less contentment than at baseline than well participants. Severity of URTI symptoms correlated with changes in Speed of Memory and mood. Even without fever, infectious disease produces large disturbances in speed of cognitive processing, particularly that reflecting retrieval from memory, and these effects are more marked in older participants. URTIs also affect mood. Future studies need to examine the role of inflammatory molecules and the brain regions implicated in mediating these findings.
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Smith A, Brice C, Leach A, Tiley M, Williamson S. Effects of upper respiratory tract illnesses in a working population. ERGONOMICS 2004; 47:363-369. [PMID: 14680996 DOI: 10.1080/0014013032000157887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of upper respiratory tract illnesses on efficiency at work. This was done using the 'after-effect' technique with measurements being taken before and after work and the difference between these giving an indication of efficiency over the day. All of the volunteers (N = 48) were tested when healthy to provide baseline data for simple reaction time and mood. When volunteers developed an upper respiratory tract illness (URTI) they (N = 16) repeated the procedure. Those who remained healthy over a three month period (N = 32) were recalled as healthy controls. In addition to the performance test and mood ratings the volunteers kept a sleep log and also rated how demanding the day had been and how much effort they had put in. The results showed that those with URTIs had slower reaction times and a more negative mood both before and after work. Illness did not have an effect on ratings of demand and effort. Those who were ill reported greater sleep disturbance but this could not account for the impaired performance or negative mood states. These results suggest that upper respiratory illnesses may impair performance and well-being at work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Smith
- Centre for Occupational and Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Tower Building Cardiff University, PO Box 901 Cardiff, CF10 3YG.
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Smith A, Thomas M, Whitney H. After-effects of the common cold on mood and performance. ERGONOMICS 2000; 43:1342-1349. [PMID: 11014756 DOI: 10.1080/001401300421789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined whether volunteers who had recently had common colds showed impairments in mood and performance in the weeks following the illness. All volunteers (n = 24) were tested when healthy to provide baseline data for simple and choice reaction time tasks, attention and memory tasks and ratings of mood. When participants developed a cold (n = 13) they returned to the laboratory so that the illness could be verified. When they were symptom free they returned to the laboratory and repeated the procedure. They then completed the study with a final session 1 week later. Volunteers (n = 11) who remained healthy over 10 weeks were recalled as controls and also repeated the procedures. The results showed that those who had recently had colds showed few impairments in mental performance and mood. Taken together with the results of previous studies, this suggests that after-effects of viral infection are largely restricted to severe illnesses such as infectious mononucleosis and influenza. After-effects of colds may occur but these probably reflect poor learning at the time of the illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Smith
- Centre for Occupational and Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Cardiff University, UK
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Smith A, Thomas M, Whitney H. Effects of upper respiratory tract illnesses on mood and performance over the working day. ERGONOMICS 2000; 43:752-763. [PMID: 10902885 DOI: 10.1080/001401300404724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined whether volunteers with common colds showed impairments in objective and subjective indicators of alertness over the course of the working day. All the volunteers (n = 21) were tested when healthy to provide baseline data for simple and choice reaction time tasks, visual search tasks and ratings of mood. These measures were taken before work (08.30 hours), at lunchtime (13.00) and after work (17.30). When participants developed a cold (n = 6) they repeated the procedure. Volunteers (n = 15) who remained healthy were recalled as controls and also repeated the procedures. The results showed that those with colds had significantly slower simple and choice reaction times, and felt less alert, more tense and less sociable. The effects of having a cold on simple reaction time, alertness and anxiety increased over the day. This extends earlier research and shows that some of the effects of upper respiratory tract illnesses on mood and performance will depend on when assessments are made. These results also imply that performance and well-being at work will be impaired by upper respiratory tract illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Smith
- Centre for Occupational and Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Cardiff University, UK.
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Drake CL, Roehrs TA, Royer H, Koshorek G, Turner RB, Roth T. Effects of an experimentally induced rhinovirus cold on sleep, performance, and daytime alertness. Physiol Behav 2000; 71:75-81. [PMID: 11134688 PMCID: PMC7134541 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9384(00)00322-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES There is accumulating evidence that the common cold produces impairments in psychomotor vigilance. This has led some investigators to hypothesize that such illnesses may also have disruptive effects on sleep. While several self-report studies suggest that viral illness may influence sleep parameters, no studies have assessed polysomnographically recorded sleep following viral infections. DESIGN Parallel control group comparison. SETTING Sleep laboratory in a large urban medical center. PARTICIPANTS Twenty-one men and women with susceptibility to the rhinovirus type 23. INTERVENTIONS Nasal inoculation with rhinovirus type 23. MEASUREMENTS Polysomnographically recorded sleep for five nights (2300-0700 h) post-viral inoculation. Twice daily (1030 and 1430 h) performance assessment during each experimental day using auditory vigilance and divided attention tasks. A multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) was performed daily for the duration of the study. RESULTS In symptomatic individuals, total sleep time decreased an average of 23 min, consolidated sleep decreased an average of 36 min, and sleep efficiency was reduced by an average of 5% during the active viral period (experimental days/nights 3-5) compared with the incubation period. Psychomotor performance was impaired. These changes were significantly greater than those observed in asymptomatic individuals. CONCLUSIONS The common cold can have detrimental effects on sleep and psychomotor performance in symptomatic individuals during the initial active phase of the illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Drake
- Sleep Disorders and Research Center, Henry Ford Hospital, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, CFP3, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
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20
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Yirmiya R, Weidenfeld J, Pollak Y, Morag M, Morag A, Avitsur R, Barak O, Reichenberg A, Cohen E, Shavit Y, Ovadia H. Cytokines, "depression due to a general medical condition," and antidepressant drugs. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1999; 461:283-316. [PMID: 10442179 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-585-37970-8_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R Yirmiya
- Department of Psychology, Mount Scopus, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
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Smith A, Rich N, Sturgess W, Brice C, Collison C, Bailey J, Wilson S, Nutt D. Effects of the Common Cold on Subjective Alertness, Reaction Time, and Eye Movements. J PSYCHOPHYSIOL 1999. [DOI: 10.1027//0269-8803.13.3.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract The present study examined whether volunteers with common colds showed impairments in objective and subjective indicators of alertness. All the volunteers (N = 81) were tested when healthy to provide baseline data for mood, simple and choice reaction time tasks, and an anti-saccadic eye movement task. When subjects developed a cold (N = 17) they returned to the laboratory and repeated the procedure. Volunteers (N = 64) who remained healthy over a 10-week period were recalled as controls. The results showed that those with colds felt significantly less alert and had significantly slower simple and choice reaction times and eye movements. This extends earlier research and shows that electrophysiological measures may also be of use in assessing the behavioral changes induced by upper respiratory tract illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Smith
- Health Psychology Research Unit, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Neil Rich
- Health Psychology Research Unit, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Wendy Sturgess
- Health Psychology Research Unit, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Carolyn Brice
- Health Psychology Research Unit, University of Bristol, UK
| | | | - Jayne Bailey
- Psychopharmacology Research Unit, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Sue Wilson
- Psychopharmacology Research Unit, University of Bristol, UK
| | - David Nutt
- Psychopharmacology Research Unit, University of Bristol, UK
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Abstract
Previous research has shown that both experimentally-induced and naturally occurring upper respiratory tract illnesses (URTIs) influence mood and mental functioning. None of the previous studies of naturally occurring colds has conducted appropriate virological assays to determine the nature of the infecting agent. This is an essential methodological step in studies of malaise associated with URTIs. The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of naturally occurring colds on mood and objective measures of performance. This was done by first conducting a cross-sectional comparison of 37 healthy people and 158 volunteers with colds and then a longitudinal study in which 100 volunteers developed colds and 87 remained healthy. Virological techniques were used to identify infecting agents and comparisons made across the different groups. The results showed that having a cold was associated with reduced alertness and slowed reaction times. These effects were observed both for colds where the infecting virus was identified and those where it was not. Similar effects were obtained for both rhinovirus and coronavirus colds. One may conclude that upper respiratory tract illnesses lead to a reduction in subjective alertness and impaired psychomotor functioning. This was true for both illnesses where the infecting agent was identified and for those clinical illnesses where no virus was detected. It is now important to identify the mechanisms linking infection and illness with the behavioural changes. Similarly, the impact of these effects on real-life activities such as driving needs examining. Finally, methods of treatment need to be developed which not only treat the local symptoms of the illnesses but remove the negative mood and the performance impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Smith
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, UK.
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23
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Morag M, Yirmiya R, Lerer B, Morag A. Influence of socioeconomic status on behavioral, emotional and cognitive effects of rubella vaccination: a prospective, double blind study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1998; 23:337-51. [PMID: 9695135 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4530(98)00012-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A double-blind prospective design was used to investigate the immediate and prolonged psychological effects of a specific viral infection, and the role of immune activation in mediating these effects. Subjects were 240 female teenager girls who were vaccinated with rubella vaccine. Based on analysis of levels of antibodies to rubella, subjects were divided into two groups. An experimental group (n = 60), which included subjects who were initially seronegative and were infected following vaccination, and a control group (n = 180), which included subjects who were already immune to rubella before vaccination. Compared with the control group and to their own baseline, low socioeconomic status (SES) subjects within the experimental group showed a significant increase in the severity of depressed mood, social and attention problems, and delinquent behavior. Ten weeks post-vaccination there were no differences between the experimental and control groups in serum levels of interleukin-1 beta, interferon-gamma, soluble interleukin-2 receptors (sIL-2r), and cortisol. However, a significant negative correlation was found between fatigue-related symptoms and sIL-2r levels in the experimental (r = -0.325), but not the control group (r = -0.046). These findings suggest that viral infection can produce prolonged behavioral, emotional and cognitive problems mainly in subjects belonging to the low SES.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Morag
- Department of Psychology, Hebrew University, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem, Israel
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24
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Abstract
An experiment was carried out to determine whether caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee removed the malaise (reduced alertness, slower psychomotor performance) associated with having a common cold. One hundred volunteers were tested when healthy and 46 returned to the laboratory when they developed colds. Those subjects who remained healthy were then recalled as a control group. On the second visit subjects carried out two sessions, one pre-drink and another an hour after the drink. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the following three conditions, caffeinated coffee (1.5 mg/kg caffeine/body weight), decaffeinated coffee or fruit juice. Subjects with colds reported decreased alertness and were slower at performing psychomotor tasks. Caffeine increased the alertness and performance of the colds subjects to the same level as the healthy group and decaffeinated coffee also led to an improvement. These results suggest that drugs which increase alertness can remove the malaise associated with the common cold, and that increased stimulation of the sensory afferent nerves may also be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Smith
- Department of Psychology, University of Bristol, UK.
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25
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Hall S, Smith A. Investigation of the effects and aftereffects of naturally occurring upper respiratory tract illnesses on mood and performance. Physiol Behav 1996; 59:569-77. [PMID: 8700962 PMCID: PMC7131210 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(95)02112-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/1994] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the effects and aftereffects of naturally occurring upper respiratory tract illnesses on mood and performance. Twenty-six subjects (12 males, 14 females, mean age 23 years 10 months, age range 18-39 years) were tested once a week for a period of a month. Fifteen subjects were suffering from a common cold on the first week and the other 11 subjects were matched healthy controls. Subjects attended for an initial 3-h testing period that consisted of a set of practice trials and two test sessions involving mood rating and performance of a battery of tests measuring psychomotor functions, attention, and memory. Sessions 3, 4, and 5 took place 1, 2, and 3 weeks later, respectively. In addition to measuring mood and mental performance, symptom severity was rated on a subjective checklist. The results showed that subjects with a cold reported an increase in negative mood and that this was only significant in the first week. Impairments of psychomotor function (simple reaction time and tracking) were also observed at this time. Performance of sustained and selective attention tasks was also impaired in subjects with colds but this effect was only significant in the second week. Other functions such as working and semantic memory were unimpaired in subjects with colds at any point in the experiment. Overall, the present results confirm many of the earlier results obtained in studies of experimentally induced upper respiratory tract illnesses. Indeed, these results are both of great practical importance and theoretical interest and further studies must now elucidate the mechanisms underlying these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Hall
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, UK
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26
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Smith AP, Whitney H, Thomas M, Brockman P, Perry K. A comparison of the acute effects of a low dose of alcohol on mood and performance of healthy volunteers and subjects with upper respiratory tract illnesses. J Psychopharmacol 1995; 9:267-72. [PMID: 22297767 DOI: 10.1177/026988119500900310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
An experiment was carried out to determine whether a low dose of alcohol produced different behavioural effects in healthy volunteers to those suffering from an upper respiratory tract illness. Ninety-nine subjects were tested, with 48 subjects being assigned to the alcohol condition and 51 to the juice only condition. A dose of 1.5 ml of vodka per kg body weight was used and the alcohol manipulation was double-blind. Approximately half of the subjects in each condition were healthy and the others had upper respiratory tract illnesses, probably colds. Subjects with colds reported an increase in negative affect and were slower at performing psychomotor tasks. Few main effects of alcohol were obtained. Of major interest were the interactions between health status and alcohol conditions. The alcohol improved the mood of healthy subjects but produced greater negative moods in subjects with colds. Similarly, performance of selective and sustained attention tasks showed different effects of alcohol in healthy and ill subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Smith
- Health Psychology Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Bristol, 8 Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1 TN, UK
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27
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Dollins AB, Lynch HJ, Wurtman RJ, Deng MH, Lieberman HR. Effects of illumination on human nocturnal serum melatonin levels and performance. Physiol Behav 1993; 53:153-60. [PMID: 8434055 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(93)90024-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In humans, exposure to bright light at night suppresses the normal nocturnal elevation in circulating melatonin. Oral administration of pharmacological doses of melatonin during the day, when melatonin levels are normally minimal, induces fatigue. To examine the relationship between illumination, human pineal function, and behavior, we monitored the overnight serum melatonin profiles and behavioral performance of 24 healthy male subjects. On each of three separate occasions subjects participated in 13.5 h (1630-0800 h) testing sessions. Each subject was assigned to an individually illuminated workstation that was maintained throughout the night at an illumination level of approximately 300, 1500, or 3000 lux. Melatonin levels were significantly diminished by light treatment, F(2, 36) = 12.77, p < 0.001, in a dose-dependent manner. Performance on vigilance, reaction time, and other tasks deteriorated throughout the night, consistent with known circadian variations in these parameters, but independent of ambient light intensity and circulating melatonin levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Dollins
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139
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28
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Dollins AB, Lynch HJ, Wurtman RJ, Deng MH, Kischka KU, Gleason RE, Lieberman HR. Effect of pharmacological daytime doses of melatonin on human mood and performance. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1993; 112:490-6. [PMID: 7871062 DOI: 10.1007/bf02244899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Melatonin (10, 20, 40, or 80 mg, PO) or placebo was administered at 1145 hours on five separate occasions to 20 healthy male volunteers and the effects on serum melatonin levels, mood, performance, and oral temperature were monitored. Subjects were studied between 0930 and 1700 hours. A battery of interactive computer tasks designed to assess performance and mood was completed, oral temperature was measured, and blood samples were taken for serum melatonin radioimmunoassay. The areas under the time-melatonin concentration curve (AUC) varied significantly in proportion to the various melatonin doses. Compared with placebo treatment, all melatonin doses significantly decreased oral temperature, number of correct responses in auditory vigilance, response latency in reaction time, and self-reported vigor. Melatonin also increased self-reported fatigue, confusion, and sleepiness.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Dollins
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139
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29
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Weiss B, Utell M, Morrow P. Toxicological implications of extended space flights. ACTA ASTRONAUTICA 1992; 27:239-242. [PMID: 11537568 PMCID: PMC7133242 DOI: 10.1016/0094-5765(92)90203-u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The dominant reason for exposing humans to the risks of space flight is their ability to perform complex tasks and make complex decisions. To fulfill such a role, crews must be shielded against even incipient degradation of performance capacity. The space environment contains potential hazards ranging from microgravity to infectious microorganisms to chemical toxicants. An extensive literature indicates that incipient disruptions of function may occur at low levels of exposure to toxic agents and degrade performance. Such questions need to be pursued before irreversible decisions are made about space vehicle design.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Weiss
- Center for Space Environmental Health, University of Rochester, NY 14642
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30
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Smith AP, Tyrrell DA, Coyle KB, Higgins PG. The effects and after-effects of interferon alpha on human performance, mood and physiological functions. J Psychopharmacol 1991; 5:243-50. [PMID: 22282563 DOI: 10.1177/026988119100500311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The effects of three doses of interferon alpha (IFNα, 1.5 Mu, 0.5 Mu and 0.1 Mu) on performance, mood and physiological function were examined in a double-blind placebo controlled trial. The subjects given an injection of 1.5 Mu showed symptoms which closely resembled those seen in influenza, although most of the symptoms had gone by the next day. All of the doses of IFN reduced subjective ratings of alertness, but again this effect was only apparent on the day of challenge. Subjects given the 1.5 Mu injection were slower on two of the performance tasks (a simple reaction time task and a pegboard task) both on the day of challenge and the following day. None of the other tasks in the battery was impaired by any of the doses of IFN, either on the day of challenge or the following day. These results suggest that IFNα has selective effects on performance, and it is possible that IFN-induced changes in CNS function provide a mechanism through which viral infections influence behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Smith
- Health Psychology Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Wales College of Cardiff, PO Box 901, Cardiff CF1 3YG
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31
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Smith AP, Rusted JM, Savory M, Eaton-Williams P, Hall SR. The effects of caffeine, impulsivity and time of day on performance, mood and cardiovascular function. J Psychopharmacol 1991; 5:120-8. [PMID: 22282363 DOI: 10.1177/026988119100500205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments were carried out to examine the effects of caffeine on performance, mood and cardiovascular function. The results showed that the effects of caffeine depended on the dose, time of administration, the function being examined and the impulsivity of the subject. Changes in blood pressure were only observed when a high dose (3 mg/kg) was used. The effects of this dose on performance depended on the impulsivity of the subject, with high impulsives performing worse in the de-caffeinated condition but getting a greater benefit from the caffeine. The high dose of caffeine also removed the post-lunch dip in sustained attention. The second experiment, which used a lower dose of caffeine (~60 mg), failed to demonstrate any caffeine x impulsivity or caffeine x time of day effects on performance. However, caffeine improved performance on a logical reasoning task and caffeine x time of day x impulsivity effects were found in analyses of visual search tasks. The mood data also support the view that the effects of caffeine depend on a combination of factors similar to those outlined for performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Smith
- School of Psychology, University of Wales College of Cardiff, Cardiff CF1 3YG
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32
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Smith AP, Tyrrell DA, Al-Nakib W, Barrow I, Higgins P, Wenham R. Effects of zinc gluconate and nedocromil sodium on performance deficits produced by the common cold. J Psychopharmacol 1991; 5:251-4. [PMID: 22282564 DOI: 10.1177/026988119100500312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Two studies are reported on the effects of drugs on the performance impairments induced by experimentally- produced colds. The first study examined the effects of zinc gluconate on choice reaction time, and showed that the zinc removed the cold-induced performance impairment. The second experiment used nedocromil sodium and, again, the drug was effective in reducing the drop in performance observed in volunteers with colds. While the precise mode of action of these compounds is unclear it is speculated that one mechanism involves changes in trigeminal stimulation, and this could be responsible for both the clinical efficacy and CNS effects of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Smith
- Health Psychology Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Wales College of Cardiff, PO Box 901, Cardiff CF1 3YG
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Smith AP, Tyrrell DA, Barrow GI, Coyle KB, Higgins PG, Trickett S, Willman JS. Effects of experimentally induced colds on aspects of memory. Percept Mot Skills 1990; 71:1207-15. [PMID: 1965023 DOI: 10.2466/pms.1990.71.3f.1207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Four experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of experimentally-induced colds on various aspects of memory of 27, 47, 39, and 30 adults. Free recall, digit span, and retrieval from semantic memory were unaffected by having a cold. Immediate recognition of important information from a story was impaired in subjects with colds, which suggests they were less able to follow the theme of the story. In contrast to this, volunteers with colds had better recognition of information from a story learned prior to the virus challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Smith
- Health Psychology Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Wales, College of Cardiff
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Smith AP, Tyrrell DAJ, Coyle KB, Higgins PG, Willman JS. Individual differences in susceptibility to infection and illness following respiratory virus challenge. Psychol Health 1990. [DOI: 10.1080/08870449008400390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Abstract
Minor illnesses, such as colds and influenza, are frequent, widespread and a major cause of absenteeism from work and education. Yet the clinical symptoms of such illnesses may not be so great as to stop people from working or from carrying out everyday activities. It is therefore important to determine whether these viral infections alter central nervous system function and change performance efficiency. Data on this topic are almost non-existent, which in part reflects the difficulties inherent in carrying out such studies. In real life it is almost impossible to predict when such illnesses will occur, and difficult to establish which virus produced the illness. This problem was overcome by studying experimentally induced infections and illnesses at the Medical Research Centre (MRC) Common Cold Unit in Salisbury. Results from this research programme show that: (i) colds and influenza have selective effects on performance; (ii) even sub-clinical infections can produce performance impairments; (iii) performance may be impaired during the incubation period of the illness; (iv) performance impairments may still be observed after the clinical symptoms have gone. These results have strong implications for occupational safety and efficiency and it is now essential to assess the impact of naturally occurring colds and influenza on real-life activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Smith
- Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, U.K
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- A Smith
- Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
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37
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Barrow GI, Higgins PG, al-Nakib W, Smith AP, Wenham RB, Tyrrell DA. The effect of intranasal nedocromil sodium on viral upper respiratory tract infections in human volunteers. Clin Exp Allergy 1990; 20:45-51. [PMID: 2155688 PMCID: PMC7185334 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1990.tb02774.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Two studies involving double-blind group comparative trials in human volunteers compared the effects of intranasal nedocromil sodium (2.6 mg active drug per nostril, q.i.d.) with placebo on clinical symptoms and performance impairment associated with the common cold. In the first study volunteers were challenged with rhinoviruses (RV9 and RV14), and in the second study with respiratory coronavirus. In both studies, active and placebo groups of volunteers were demographically similar. Infection rates in both groups were also similar. There were no withdrawals resulting from unusual symptoms related to either treatment. In the rhinovirus study (19, placebo; 20, nedocromil sodium) daily symptom scores and daily mean nasal secretion weights were significantly lower in the nedocromil sodium-treated group. In the coronavirus study (26, placebo; 27, nedocromil sodium) there was little difference in the severity of colds between the active and placebo-treated groups, but trends favoured nedocromil sodium. In both studies the impairment of performance in volunteers who developed a cold was significantly less in those treated with nedocromil sodium than in those treated with placebo.
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Affiliation(s)
- G I Barrow
- MRC Common Cold Unit, Harvard Hospital, Salisbury, U.K
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38
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Abstract
Studies in human psychoneuroimmunology began around 1919, but a systematic approach wasn't used until the work of Solomon in the 1960s. Recently, the new specialty has achieved relative independence due to considerable data acquisition. Stress research has revealed relationships between neuroendocrine and immune changes. In parallel, increasing evidence of immunological alterations in psychiatric diseases has expanded the field; presently, immunological correlates of psychosomatic diseases and personality are sought. On the other hand, while immunological disease has been psychologically assessed for many years, a clear-cut link between psyche and immunological changes has yet to be shown. This fact, along with the therapeutic implications of advancing knowledge, will influence strongly the future trends of psychoneuroimmunology. Concepts emerging from the study of this field will be of heuristic value to both psychiatry and immunology and will help define new and expanded limits for both disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Biondi
- Third Psychiatric Clinic, University of Rome, La Sapienza, Italy
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39
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Tyrrell DA. Some recent work at the Common Cold Unit, Salisbury. Infection 1988; 16:261-2. [PMID: 3215686 PMCID: PMC7100670 DOI: 10.1007/bf01645065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Smith A, Tyrrell D, Coyle K, Higgins P. Effects of interferon alpha on performance in man: a preliminary report. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1988; 96:414-6. [PMID: 3146777 DOI: 10.1007/bf00216072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The effects of three doses of interferon alpha (1.5 Mu, 0.5 Mu and 0.1 Mu) on performance were studied. The injection of 1.5 Mu IFN produced symptoms and performance changes which closely resembled those found in volunteers with influenza. Specifically, volunteers were slower at responding when they were uncertain when a target stimulus would appear, but were not impaired on a pursuit tracking task or syntactic reasoning task. The results suggest that interferon-induced changes in CNS function provide a plausible explanation for the selective effects of influenza on performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Smith
- Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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