Chromosomal evolution of Malagasy lemurs. XI. Phylogenetic position of Daubentonia madagascariensis

Molecular phylogeny and evolution of prosimians based on complete sequences of mitochondrial DNAs

Prosimians (tarsiers and strepsirrhini) represent the basal lineages in primates and have a close bearing on the origin of primates. Although major lineages among anthropoidea (humans, apes and monkeys) are well represented by complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence data, only one complete mtDNA sequence from a representative of each of the infraorders in prosimians has been described until quite recently, and therefore we newly determined complete mtDNA sequences from 5 lemurs, 4 lorises, one tarsier and one platyrrhini. These sequences were provided to phylogenetic analyses in combination with the sequences from the 15 primates species reported to the database. The position of tarsiers among primates could not be resolved by the maximum likelihood (ML) and neighbor-joining (NJ) analyses with several data sets. As to the position of tarsiers, any of the three alternative topologies (monophyly of haplorhini, monophyly of prosimians, and tarsiers being basal in primates) was not rejected at the significance level of 5%, neither at the nucleotide nor at the amino acid level. In addition, the significant variations of C and T compositions were observed across primates species. Furthermore, we used AGY data sets for phylogenetic analyses in order to remove the effect of different C/T composition bias across species. The analyses of AGY data sets provided a medium support for the monophyly of haplorhini, which might have been screened by the variation in base composition of mtDNA across species. To estimates the speciation dates within primates, we analyzed the amino acid sequences of mt-proteins with a Bayesian method of Thorne and Kishino. Divergence dates were estimated as follows for the crown groups: about 35.4 million years ago (mya) for lorisiformes, 55.3 mya for lemuriformes, 64.5 mya for strepsirrhini, 70.1 mya for haplorhini and 76.0 mya for primates. Furthermore, we reexamined the biogeographic scenarios which have been proposed for the origin of strepsirrhini (lemuriformes and lorisiformes) and for the dispersal of the lemuriformes and lorisiformes.

Primate phylogeny, evolutionary rate variations, and divergence times: a contribution from the nuclear gene IRBP

The first third (ca. 1200 bp) of exon 1 of the nuclear gene encoding the interstitial retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) has been sequenced for 12 representative primates belonging to Lemuriformes, Lorisiformes, Tarsiiformes, Platyrrhini, and Catarrhini, and combined with available data (13 other primates, 11 nonprimate placentals, and 2 marsupials). Phylogenetic analyses using maximum likelihood on nucleotides and amino acids robustly support the monophyly of primates, Strepsirrhini, Lemuriformes, Lorisiformes, Anthropoidea, Catarrhini, and Platyrrhini. It is interesting to note that 1) Tarsiidae grouped with Anthropoidea, and the support for this node depends on the molecular characters considered; 2) Cheirogaleidae grouped within Lemuriformes; and 3) Daubentonia was the sister group of all other Lemuriformes. Study of the IRBP evolutionary rate shows a high heterogeneity within placentals and also within primates. Maximum likelihood local molecular clocks were assigned to three clades displaying significantly contrasted evolutionary rates. Paenungulata were shown to evolve 2.5-3 times faster than Perissodactyla and Lemuriformes. Six independent calibration points were used to estimate splitting ages of the main primate clades, and their compatibility was evaluated. Divergence ages were obtained for the following crown groups: 13.8-14.2 MY for Lorisiformes, 26.5-27.2 MY for Lemuroidea, 39.6-40.7 MY for Lemuriformes, 45.4-46.7 MY for Strepsirrhini, and 56.7-58.4 MY for Haplorrhini. The incompatibility between some paleontological and molecular estimates may reflect the incompleteness of the placental fossil record, and/or indicate that the variable IRBP evolutionary rates are not fully accommodated by local molecular clocks.

Anatomy of the Hand and Arm in Daubentonia madagascariensis :A Functional and Phylogenetic Outlook

The aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) is easily the most enigmatic of living primates. It sports a unique combination of derived characters, including continuously growing incisors, functional claws, the largest hand of any primate and a highly modified middle finger. The specialised middle finger is no longer used in locomotion and serves as a probe-like instrument for investigating, locating and extracting xylophagous (wood-boring) larvae as well as other food items. Its phalanges can be moved both at great speed and independently of each other. The present study reports on dissections of the forelimbs of two individuals of D. madagascariensis and one specimen each of Lemur catta and Cercopithecus cephus. Derived characters of the forelimb musculature in Daubentonia are interpreted within the context of its distinct locomotor and foraging adaptations. The primary adaptations underlying speed and mobility in the third manual digit of Daubentonia are found in the intrinsic hand musculature and notably in the arrangement of the dorsal aponeurosis. Implications for the interpretation of suggested convergences between the aye-aye, the diprotodont marsupial Dactylopsila palpator and the early Tertiary apatemyid genus Heterohyus are discussed.

Characterization and evolution of major histocompatibility complex class II genes in the aye-aye, Daubentonia madagascariensis

Major histocompatibility complex genes (Mhc-DQB and Mhc-DRB) were sequenced in seven aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariecsis), which is an endemic and endangered species in Madagascar. An aye-aye from a north-eastern population showed genetic relatedness to individuals of a north-western population and had a somewhat different repertoire from another north-eastern individual. These observations suggest that the extent of genetic variation in Mhc genes is not excessively small in the aye-aye in spite of recent rapid destruction of their habitat by human activities. In light of Mhc gene evolution, trans-species and allelic polymorphisms can be estimated to have been retained for more than 50 Ma (million years) based on the time scale of lemur evolution.

Chromosomal localization of 18S rDNA and telomere sequence in the aye-aye, Daubentonia madagascariensis

Chromosomal localization of 18S rDNA and telomere sequence was attempted on the chromosomes of the aye-aye (2n = 30) using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and primed in situ labeling (PRINS), respectively. The rDNA was localized at the tip or whole of the short arm of acrocentric chromosomes 13 and 14 in all spreads observed. However, post-FISH silver-nitrate (Ag) staining showed that transcriptional activity of the rRNA genes was variable, particularly in chromosome 14, which was most frequently negative in one homologue carrying the smaller copy number of rDNA. This observation supports, at the molecular cytogenetic level, previous data concerning the relationship between the copy number of rDNA and its trancriptional activity. On the other hand, telomere sequence was localized only at the telomeric region of all chromosomes, the so-called telomere-only pattern, a characteristic similar to that of the greater bushbaby. These data may provide information on the chromosomal evolution of the lemur, because locations of rDNA and telomere sequences frequently offer important clues in reconstruction of karyotype differentiation.

Nails and claws in primate evolution

The issue of whether nails or claws were present on the digits of the last common ancestor of living primates is central to the understanding of the ecological context in which the order originated. Two lines of evidence are available, the shape (claw, nail, toilet-claw) and the histological structure (one or two horny strata). Here we review the existing data regarding the shape and histological structure of cheirideal appendages in primates and present new information from a wide range of living primates. We demonstrate the presence of a typical toilet-claw in Daubentonia madagascariensis and discuss its consequences, since the alleged lack of such structures in this species has long obscured the issue. The general view that primate nails, with the exception of those in New World primates, consist of only one layer is disproved by the presence of two distinct strata in the nails of the feet of three out of seven catarrhine species examined, as well as in Lemur catta. The combined new and old data indicate that the last common ancestor of the extant primates had lost the typical mammalian claws of its ancestors and developed nails on all pedal digits except digit II, which bore a toilet-claw. All nails as well as the toilet-claw originally consisted of two layers. We present a new hypothesis regarding the adaptational significance of these changes.

Ancient single origin for Malagasy primates

We report new evidence that bears decisively on a long-standing controversy in primate systematics. DNA sequence data for the complete cytochrome b gene, combined with an expanded morphological data set, confirm the results of a previous study and again indicate that all extant Malagasy lemurs originated from a single common ancestor. These results, as well as those from other genetic studies, call for a revision of primate classifications in which the dwarf and mouse lemurs are placed within the Afro-Asian lorisiforms. The phylogenetic results, in agreement with paleocontinental data, indicate an African origin for the common ancestor of lemurs and lorises (the Strepsirrhini). The molecular data further suggest the surprising conclusion that lemurs began evolving independently by the early Eocene at the latest. This indicates that the Malagasy primate lineage is more ancient than generally thought and places the split between the two strepsirrhine lineages well before the appearance of known Eocene fossil primates. We conclude that primate origins were marked by rapid speciation and diversification sometime before the late Paleocene.

Phylogeny and molecular evolution in primates

Statistical methods for estimating the branching order and the branching dates from DNA sequence data, taking into account of the rate variation among lineages, are reviewed. An application of the methods to data from primates suggests that chimpanzee is the closest relative of man, and further suggests that these two species diverged about 4-5 million years ago.