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Friesenhagen J, Viemann D, Börgeling Y, Schmolke M, Spiekermann C, Kirschnek S, Ludwig S, Roth J. Highly pathogenic influenza viruses inhibit inflammatory response in monocytes via activation of rar-related orphan receptor RORα. J Innate Immun 2013; 5:505-18. [PMID: 23445660 DOI: 10.1159/000346706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2012] [Accepted: 12/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections with highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) in humans lead to systemic disease associated with cytokine storm and multiorgan failure. In this study we aimed to identify the role of monocytes for the host response to HPAIV infection. Using genome-wide microarray analysis, we surprisingly demonstrate a reduced immune response of human monocytes to HPAIV H5N1 compared to human influenza A viruses. In bioinformatic analyses we could reveal a potential role of the Rar-related orphan receptor alpha (RORα) for the gene expression pattern induced by H5N1. RORα is known as an inhibitor of NF-κB signaling. We provide evidence that in monocytes RORα is activated by H5N1, resulting in inhibited NF-κB signaling. Using murine Hoxb8-immortalized RORα⁻/⁻, monocytes rescued NF-κB signaling upon H5N1 infection, confirming the biological relevance of RORα as an H5N1-induced mediator of monocytic immunosuppression. In summary, our study reveals a novel RORα-dependent escape mechanism by which H5N1 prevents an effective inflammatory response of monocytes blocking NF-κB-dependent gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Friesenhagen
- Institute of Immunology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany. Friesenhagen.Judith @ mh-hannover.de
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2
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Abstract
The cytokine storm has captured the attention of the public and the scientific community alike, and while the general notion of an excessive or uncontrolled release of proinflammatory cytokines is well known, the concept of a cytokine storm and the biological consequences of cytokine overproduction are not clearly defined. Cytokine storms are associated with a wide variety of infectious and noninfectious diseases. The term was popularized largely in the context of avian H5N1 influenza virus infection, bringing the term into popular media. In this review, we focus on the cytokine storm in the context of virus infection, and we highlight how high-throughput genomic methods are revealing the importance of the kinetics of cytokine gene expression and the remarkable degree of redundancy and overlap in cytokine signaling. We also address evidence for and against the role of the cytokine storm in the pathology of clinical and infectious disease and discuss why it has been so difficult to use knowledge of the cytokine storm and immunomodulatory therapies to improve the clinical outcomes for patients with severe acute infections.
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Friesenhagen J, Boergeling Y, Hrincius E, Ludwig S, Roth J, Viemann D. Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses inhibit effective immune responses of human blood-derived macrophages. J Leukoc Biol 2012; 92:11-20. [PMID: 22442495 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0911479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic infections with HPAIVs, such as H5N1, are characterized by cytokine burst and sepsis. We investigated the role of human monocyte-derived macrophages in these events after infection with different influenza virus strains. Macrophages were infected with low pathogenic H1N1 (PR8) or high pathogenic H7N7 (FPV) and H5N1 (KAN-1) subtypes. Macrophages were found to be nonpermissive for influenza virus propagation. Surprisingly, transcriptome analysis revealed an insufficient innate immune response of macrophages only to HPAIV infections. Induction of inflammatory cytokines, as well as type I IFNs, was significantly attenuated in H5N1- and H7N7-infected cells, contradicting a primary role of macrophages for the cytokine burst. Furthermore, inflammasome activation was impaired significantly in HPAIV-infected macrophages. Interestingly, this finding correlated with a complete suppression of viral protein M2 expression after HPAIV infection, which is known to be involved in influenza viral inflammasome activation. In summary, our data provide first evidences for a strategy of how HPAIVs avoid initial inflammatory responses of macrophages facilitating virus spreading and progression to the systemic stage of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Clark
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
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Heffelfinger JD, Patel P, Brooks JT, Calvet H, Daley CL, Dean HD, Edlin BR, Gensheimer KF, Jereb J, Kent CK, Lennox JL, Louie JK, Lynfield R, Peters PJ, Pinckney L, Spradling P, Voetsch AC, Fiore A. Pandemic influenza: implications for programs controlling for HIV infection, tuberculosis, and chronic viral hepatitis. Am J Public Health 2009; 99 Suppl 2:S333-9. [PMID: 19797745 PMCID: PMC4504393 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2008.158170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2009] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Among vulnerable populations during an influenza pandemic are persons with or at risk for HIV infection, tuberculosis, or chronic viral hepatitis. HIV-infected persons have higher rates of hospitalization, prolonged illness, and increased mortality from influenza compared with the general population. Persons with tuberculosis and chronic viral hepatitis may also be at increased risk of morbidity and mortality from influenza because of altered immunity and chronic illness. These populations also face social and structural barriers that will be exacerbated by a pandemic. Existing infrastructure should be expanded and pandemic planning should include preparations to reduce the risks for these populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- James D Heffelfinger
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Mail Stop: E-46, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Clark IA, Alleva LM, Budd AC, Cowden WB. Understanding the role of inflammatory cytokines in malaria and related diseases. Travel Med Infect Dis 2007; 6:67-81. [PMID: 18342278 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2007.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2007] [Accepted: 07/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
It is now broadly accepted for infectious disease in general that it is not the invading organism, but the body's unbridled response to it--the "cytokine storm"--that causes illness and pathology. Nevertheless, many researchers still regard the harmful effects of falciparum malaria as being governed by oligaemic hypoxia arising from parasitised erythrocytes obstructing blood flow through vulnerable organs, particularly the brain, and we summarise why these notions are no longer tenable. In our view, this harmful sequestration is readily accommodated within the cytokine storm perspective as one of its secondary effects. We approach these issues by examining aspects of malaria, sepsis and influenza in parallel, and discuss the insights that comparisons of the literature can provide on the validity of possible anti-disease therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian A Clark
- School of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian A Clark
- School of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
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Sun J, Bergeron M, Barbeau B, Boivin G, Tremblay MJ. Influenza virus activates human immunodeficiency virus type-1 gene expression in human CD4-expressing T cells through an NF-κB-dependent pathway. Clin Immunol 2005; 114:190-8. [PMID: 15639653 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2004.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2004] [Accepted: 10/18/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Influenza virus infection can cause severe complications in human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1)-infected individuals leading to an increased risk of complications and death compared to that seen in uninfected individuals. We assessed the capacity of influenza virus (Flu) to modulate transcription of the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) in human CD4+ T cells. We found that Flu is able to promote expression of both the transiently transfected and stably integrated HIV-1 LTR-driven reporter gene. Experiments performed with Arthrobacter-derived neuraminidase and ammonium chloride revealed that Flu-dependent activation of HIV-1 transcription required an intimate contact between Flu and the target cell and efficient entry of Flu inside human CD4+ T cells. Amplification of a Flu-specific mRNA by RT-PCR indicated that human T cells were indeed productively infected with Flu. Virus preparations rendered noninfectious after UV irradiation could no longer upregulate HIV-1 LTR activity. Furthermore, experiments conducted with wild type and NF-kappaB-mutated HIV-1 LTR-directed reporter vectors suggested that the positive action of Flu on HIV-1 LTR activity was mediated through the induction of NF-kappaB. Our data show that fully competent Flu can lead to NF-kappaB-dependent activation of HIV-1 transcription in CD4+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangfeng Sun
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Kash JC, Basler CF, García-Sastre A, Carter V, Billharz R, Swayne DE, Przygodzki RM, Taubenberger JK, Katze MG, Tumpey TM. Global host immune response: pathogenesis and transcriptional profiling of type A influenza viruses expressing the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes from the 1918 pandemic virus. J Virol 2004; 78:9499-511. [PMID: 15308742 PMCID: PMC506954 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.17.9499-9511.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand more fully the molecular events associated with highly virulent or attenuated influenza virus infections, we have studied the effects of expression of the 1918 hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes during viral infection in mice under biosafety level 3 (agricultural) conditions. Using histopathology and cDNA microarrays, we examined the consequences of expression of the HA and NA genes of the 1918 pandemic virus in a recombinant influenza A/WSN/33 virus compared to parental A/WSN/33 virus and to an attenuated virus expressing the HA and NA genes from A/New Caledonia/20/99. The 1918 HA/NA:WSN and WSN recombinant viruses were highly lethal for mice and displayed severe lung pathology in comparison to the nonlethal New Caledonia HA/NA:WSN recombinant virus. Expression microarray analysis performed on lung tissues isolated from the infected animals showed activation of many genes involved in the inflammatory response, including cytokine, apoptosis, and lymphocyte genes that were common to all three infection groups. However, consistent with the histopathology studies, the WSN and 1918 HA/NA:WSN recombinant viruses showed increased up-regulation of genes associated with activated T cells and macrophages, as well as genes involved in apoptosis, tissue injury, and oxidative damage that were not observed in the New Caledonia HA/NA:WSN recombinant virus-infected mice. These studies document clear differences in gene expression profiles that were correlated with pulmonary disease pathology induced by virulent and attenuated influenza virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Kash
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-8070, USA.
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Clark IA, Alleva LM, Mills AC, Cowden WB. Pathogenesis of malaria and clinically similar conditions. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17:509-39, table of contents. [PMID: 15258091 PMCID: PMC452556 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.17.3.509-539.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
There is now wide acceptance of the concept that the similarity between many acute infectious diseases, be they viral, bacterial, or parasitic in origin, is caused by the overproduction of inflammatory cytokines initiated when the organism interacts with the innate immune system. This is also true of certain noninfectious states, such as the tissue injury syndromes. This review discusses the historical origins of these ideas, which began with tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and spread from their origins in malaria research to other fields. As well the more established proinflammatory mediators, such as TNF, interleukin-1, and lymphotoxin, the roles of nitric oxide and carbon monoxide, which are chiefly inhibitory, are discussed. The established and potential roles of two more recently recognized contributors, overactivity of the enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) and the escape of high-mobility-group box 1 (HMGB1) protein from its normal location into the circulation, are also put in context. The pathogenesis of the disease caused by falciparum malaria is then considered in the light of what has been learned about the roles of these mediators in these other diseases, as well as in malaria itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian A Clark
- School of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
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Divanovic S, Lai ACK. Cytokine induction in human cord blood lymphocytes after pulsing with UV-inactivated influenza viruses. Immunol Lett 2004; 94:201-7. [PMID: 15275967 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2004.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2004] [Revised: 04/29/2004] [Accepted: 05/01/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Mitogenic activity of UV-inactivated influenza viruses in cord blood lymphocytes (CBL), as measured by cytokine release, was investigated. Using prototype viruses of subtype H3N2 (A/Aichi/68), H2N2 (A/Japan/57), and H1N1 (A/Puerto Rico/34) for influenza A virus, and B/Lee/40 for influenza B virus, the results indicated that both Th1 and Th2 cytokines were induced. Stimulation indices were significantly higher for IFNgamma, IL-4 and IL-10 by influenza A viruses than by influenza B virus. Stimulation indices for IL-2 and IL-6 were lower, as these two cytokines were spontaneously released by cord blood lymphocytes in culture. Alignment of the amino acid sequences of the HA for the viruses used in this study indicated that influenza B virus lacked sequence homology to the antigenic sites identified for influenza A virus. Therefore, the antigenic sites may play a role in the mitogenic property, and cord blood lymphocytes could provide a system to compare this property for clinical isolates of influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Senad Divanovic
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, 306 Life Science East, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
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Kallas EG, Reynolds K, Andrews J, Treanor JJ, Evans TG. Production of influenza-stimulated tumor necrosis factor-alpha by monocytes following acute influenza infection in humans. J Interferon Cytokine Res 1999; 19:751-5. [PMID: 10454345 DOI: 10.1089/107999099313596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is often measured in the serum or plasma of patients with severe infections, and marked elevation correlates with poor outcome. The relationship of TNF-alpha to protection from disease is frequently not observed because prospective studies of infectious agents are difficult to perform. We took advantage of a human antiviral influenza challenge study to correlate TNF-alpha production with seroconversion and symptom development. TNF-alpha production was measured by ELISA in the plasma compartment or was measured by intracellular production at the single cell level in the monocyte gated population. Monocyte TNF-alpha was associated with asymptomatic seroconversion, whereas there was no change in the plasma at the times measured. Measurement of TNF-alpha at the single cell level by flow cytometry may allow for better differentiation of the protective role of this cytokine in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- E G Kallas
- Infectious Diseases Unit, University of Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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Sayers NM, Drucker DB, Morris JA, Telford DR. Lethal synergy between toxins of staphylococci and enterobacteria: implications for sudden infant death syndrome. J Clin Pathol 1995; 48:929-32. [PMID: 8537492 PMCID: PMC502949 DOI: 10.1136/jcp.48.10.929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
AIM To test the hypothesis that lethal synergy occurs between toxin preparations of nasopharyngeal staphylococci and enterobacteria from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) victims and matched healthy infants. METHODS SIDS and matched healthy babies were studied if both staphylococcal and enterobacterial strains were isolated from the nasopharynx. The lethality of toxin preparations from each bacterial isolate (separately and combined) was assessed over a range of dilutions using the chick embryo assay system. RESULTS Staphylococci and enterobacteria were isolated together from the nasopharynx of seven SIDS babies but from only one normal healthy infant. Enterobacterial toxins were lethal at high dilutions. Staphylococcal toxins were less toxic. Simultaneous testing in the chick assay of staphylococcal and enterobacterial toxins, from each baby, at non-lethal concentrations enhanced lethality levels by 177 to 1011% compared with lethality expected by an additive effect alone. CONCLUSIONS Synergy occurs between the toxins of nasopharyngeal staphylococci and enterobacteria. This combination of strains is more likely to occur in the nasopharynx of SIDS victims than that of healthy infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Sayers
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester
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Louie M, Yoo J, Moran T, Mayer L, Sperber K. Impairment of monocytic function after influenza virus infection. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 1995; 2:426-33. [PMID: 7583918 PMCID: PMC170173 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.2.4.426-433.1995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In order to analyze the immunosuppression associated with influenza virus infection, we investigated monocytic function in macrophage hybridoma cell lines 5 weeks after infection with two strains of influenza virus. Clones 30 and 63, chosen for stability in long-term culture, were infected with two strains of influenza virus, X-31 and PR-8. Uniform infection of both cell lines was confirmed by intracytoplasmic staining with the antihemagglutinin strain-specific monoclonal antibodies PY 102 and PY 206. One week after infection, clones 30 and 63 lost their ability to stimulate tetanus toxoid-specific major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-matched responder T cells. Coincident with the inability to stimulate MHC-matched T cells, there was diminished surface expression of class II MHC antigens and LFA-1-alpha and LFA-3 compared with that in uninfected cells: DR, 2.5 versus 10.6% (mean channel 0.3 versus 1.5); DQ, 1.6 versus 15.6% (mean channel 0.3 versus 3.0); DP, 5.0 versus 30.9% (mean channel 0.3 versus 2.0). LFA-1-alpha expression was reduced (13.1 versus 20.0%; mean channel 1.5 versus 2.0) while LFA-3 expression remained the same (22.2 versus 324%; mean channel 3.0 versus 3.3). Class I MHC surface antigen expression was unaltered. Cytokine secretion was also perturbed, as interleukin 1-alpha (IL-1-alpha) and IL-1-beta production was lost 1 week after infection. Production of IL-12 and IL-10 was unchanged, while IL-6 production was increased. The viability of the T cells cocultured with 63Flu was unaltered, demonstrating that the inability of the MHC-restricted T cells to proliferate in response to tetanus toxoid was not due to a toxic effect of 63Flu. Interestingly, other accessory functions, including the ability to support mitogen- and anti-CD3-mediated T-cell proliferation, remained intact. These data suggest that alteration of macrophage function relating to viral infection occurs at multiple levels and may contribute to the immunosuppression observed following influenza virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Louie
- Division of Clinical Immunology, Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York 10029, USA
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Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), is able to replicate in many human cells such as helper lymphocytes, monocytes/macrophages and glial cells. Monocytes/macrophages must be considered an important reservoir of HIV in vivo and a producer of cytokines such as Interleukin-1 (IL1) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). These substances lead to an autocrine feedback loop that produces an increased virus replication and a secondary induction of other cytokines such as Interleukin 6 (IL6) and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). These cytokines all together may be responsible for many clinical aspects of the disease such as headache, fever, anorexia, subtle cognitive changes, motor disfunctions and cachexia. The future strategies in the treatment of AIDS must be a combination of drugs acting on different points of viral replication and with synergistic potential. Omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3) can be considered a candidate for their pleiotropic effects on immunological and metabolic systems. In particular, their use is considered for their ability to decrease IL1 and TNF production by monocytes/macrophages, as demonstrated by many authors. The decreased induction of these cytokines and consequently of IL6 and acute phase proteins may have beneficial effects on many clinical manifestations of AIDS such as cachexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Razzini
- Department of Infectious Diseases, IRCCS Pol San Matteo, University of Pavia, Italy
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