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Donoso F, Cryan JF, Olavarría-Ramírez L, Nolan YM, Clarke G. Inflammation, Lifestyle Factors, and the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis: Relevance to Depression and Antidepressant Action. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2023; 113:246-259. [PMID: 35278334 PMCID: PMC10084001 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.2581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Depression is considered a major public health concern, where existing pharmacological treatments are not equally effective across all patients. The pathogenesis of depression involves the interaction of complex biological components, such as the immune system and the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Adjunctive lifestyle-oriented approaches for depression, including physical exercise and special diets are promising therapeutic options when combined with traditional antidepressants. However, the mechanisms of action of these strategies are incompletely understood. Accumulating evidence suggests that physical exercise and specific dietary regimens can modulate both the immune system and gut microbiota composition. Here, we review the current information about the strategies to alleviate depression and their crosstalk with both inflammatory mechanisms and the gut microbiome. We further discuss the role of the microbiota-gut-brain axis as a possible mediator for the adjunctive therapies for depression through inflammatory mechanisms. Finally, we review existing and future adjunctive strategies to manipulate the gut microbiota with potential use for depression, including physical exercise, dietary interventions, prebiotics/probiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Donoso
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - John F Cryan
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | | | - Yvonne M Nolan
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Gerard Clarke
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,Department of Psychiatry & Neurobehavioural Science, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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2
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Preparation of melatonin novel-mucoadhesive nanoemulsion used in the treatment of depression. Polym Bull (Berl) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-022-04436-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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3
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Tchekalarova J, Nenchovska Z, Kortenska L, Uzunova V, Georgieva I, Tzoneva R. Impact of Melatonin Deficit on Emotional Status and Oxidative Stress-Induced Changes in Sphingomyelin and Cholesterol Level in Young Adult, Mature, and Aged Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052809. [PMID: 35269951 PMCID: PMC8911298 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The pineal gland regulates the aging process via the hormone melatonin. The present report aims to evaluate the effect of pinealectomy (pin) on behavioral and oxidative stress-induced alterations in cholesterol and sphingomyelin (SM) levels in young adult, mature and aging rats. Sham and pin rats aged 3, 14 and 18 months were tested in behavioral tests for motor activity, anxiety, and depression. The ELISA test explored oxidative stress parameters and SM in the hippocampus, while total cholesterol was measured in serum via a commercial autoanalyzer. Mature and aged sham rats showed low motor activity and increased anxiety compared to the youngest rats. Pinealectomy affected emotional responses, induced depressive-like behavior, and elevated cholesterol levels in the youngest rats. However, removal of the pineal gland enhanced oxidative stress by diminishing antioxidant capacity and increasing the MDA level, and decreased SM level in the hippocampus of 14-month-old rats. Our findings suggest that young adult rats are vulnerable to emotional disturbance and changes in cholesterol levels resulting from melatonin deficiency. In contrast, mature rats with pinealectomy are exposed to an oxidative stress-induced decrease in SM levels in the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Tchekalarova
- Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Block 23, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (Z.N.); (L.K.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Zlatina Nenchovska
- Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Block 23, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (Z.N.); (L.K.)
| | - Lidia Kortenska
- Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Block 23, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (Z.N.); (L.K.)
| | - Veselina Uzunova
- Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Block 21, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (V.U.); (I.G.); (R.T.)
| | - Irina Georgieva
- Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Block 21, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (V.U.); (I.G.); (R.T.)
| | - Rumiana Tzoneva
- Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Block 21, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (V.U.); (I.G.); (R.T.)
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Melatonin and the Programming of Stem Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23041971. [PMID: 35216086 PMCID: PMC8879213 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23041971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Melatonin interacts with various types of stem cells, in multiple ways that comprise stimulation of proliferation, maintenance of stemness and self-renewal, protection of survival, and programming toward functionally different cell lineages. These various properties are frequently intertwined but may not be always jointly present. Melatonin typically stimulates proliferation and transition to the mature cell type. For all sufficiently studied stem or progenitor cells, melatonin’s signaling pathways leading to expression of respective morphogenetic factors are discussed. The focus of this article will be laid on the aspect of programming, particularly in pluripotent cells. This is especially but not exclusively the case in neural stem cells (NSCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Concerning developmental bifurcations, decisions are not exclusively made by melatonin alone. In MSCs, melatonin promotes adipogenesis in a Wnt (Wingless-Integration-1)-independent mode, but chondrogenesis and osteogenesis Wnt-dependently. Melatonin upregulates Wnt, but not in the adipogenic lineage. This decision seems to depend on microenvironment and epigenetic memory. The decision for chondrogenesis instead of osteogenesis, both being Wnt-dependent, seems to involve fibroblast growth factor receptor 3. Stem cell-specific differences in melatonin and Wnt receptors, and contributions of transcription factors and noncoding RNAs are outlined, as well as possibilities and the medical importance of re-programming for transdifferentiation.
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Le Corre P, Loas G. Repurposing functional inhibitors of acid sphingomyelinase (fiasmas): an opportunity against SARS-CoV-2 infection? J Clin Pharm Ther 2021; 46:1213-1219. [PMID: 33645763 PMCID: PMC8014536 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.13390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE Infection by SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible of COVID-19, is associated with limited treatment options. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the rationale for repurposing functional inhibitors of acid sphingomyelinase (FIASMAs), several of which are approved medicines, for the treatment of SAR-CoV-2 infections. COMMENT We propose and discuss the FIASMAs' lysosomotropism as a possible explanation for their observed in vitro activities against viruses, and more specifically against infections caused by coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV-2. Successful in vitro-to-in vivo translation of FIASMAs requires that their pharmacokinetics (dosing regimen and drug-drug interactions) are matched with viral kinetics. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Drug repurposing to ensure rapid patient access to effective treatment has garnered much attention in this era of the COVID-19 pandemic. The observed lysosomotropic activity of small-molecule FIASMA compounds suggests that their repurposing as potential drugs against SARS-CoV-2 is promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Le Corre
- Pôle PharmacieService Hospitalo‐Universitaire de PharmacieCHU de RennesRennesFrance
- Univ RennesCHU RennesInsermEHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé environnement et travail) ‐ UMR_S 1085RennesFrance
- Laboratoire de Biopharmacie et Pharmacie CliniqueFaculté de PharmacieUniversité de Rennes 1RennesFrance
| | - Gwenolé Loas
- Department of PsychiatryHôpital ErasmeUniversité libre de Bruxelles (ULB)BrusselsBelgium
- Research Unit (ULB 266)Hôpital ErasmeUniversité libre de Bruxelles (ULB)BrusselsBelgium
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Wang M, Yang L, Chen Z, Dai L, Xi C, Wu X, Wu G, Wang Y, Hu J. Geniposide ameliorates chronic unpredictable mild stress induced depression-like behavior through inhibition of ceramide-PP2A signaling via the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β axis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:2789-2800. [PMID: 34142167 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05895-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Depression is a severe mental disorder. Unfortunately, more than half of patients with major depression disorder cannot achieve remission after initial treatment with an antidepressant. Geniposide, a bioactive iridoid glycoside isolated from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, can ameliorate depressive-like behaviors in mice. However, the underlying mechanism is still not very clear. METHODS The pharmacological methods including ELISA, immunofluorescence, and Western blot were used to investigate the role of geniposide on chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced depression mice. RESULTS In this study, we found that geniposide could inhibit CUMS-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice. Geniposide is able to reduce the levels of ceramide and lower the activity of acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) in hippocampus; besides, ASM inhibitor (amitriptyline) can decrease the concentration of ceramide and ameliorate depressive-like behaviors of mice. Moreover, geniposide can also alleviate CUMS-induced hippocampal neuronal apoptosis and increase the phosphorylated form of PI3K, Akt, and GSK3β. Additionally, PI3K inhibitor (LY294002) can also abolish the neuroprotective effect of geniposide on hippocampal neurons in vitro. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that geniposide exert a potential antidepressant-like effect on CUMS mice, and its effect might be associated with activated PI3K/Akt/GSK3β signaling, reduced the level of ceramide and hippocampal neuron apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meihua Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Neurocritical Care, Huashan Hospital Affiliated To Fudan University, 958 Jinguang Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200040, China.,Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Lei Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Neurocritical Care, Huashan Hospital Affiliated To Fudan University, 958 Jinguang Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Zhilin Chen
- Department of Neurology, Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital Affiliated to Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200081, China
| | - Linlu Dai
- Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Caihua Xi
- Department of Neurosurgery & Neurocritical Care, Huashan Hospital Affiliated To Fudan University, 958 Jinguang Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Xing Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery & Neurocritical Care, Huashan Hospital Affiliated To Fudan University, 958 Jinguang Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Gang Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery & Neurocritical Care, Huashan Hospital Affiliated To Fudan University, 958 Jinguang Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Emergency, Xinhua Hospital Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200092, China.
| | - Jin Hu
- Department of Neurosurgery & Neurocritical Care, Huashan Hospital Affiliated To Fudan University, 958 Jinguang Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200040, China.
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7
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Leung JWH, Cheung KK, Ngai SPC, Tsang HWH, Lau BWM. Protective Effects of Melatonin on Neurogenesis Impairment in Neurological Disorders and Its Relevant Molecular Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21165645. [PMID: 32781737 PMCID: PMC7460604 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21165645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurogenesis is the process by which functional new neurons are generated from the neural stem cells (NSCs) or neural progenitor cells (NPCs). Increasing lines of evidence show that neurogenesis impairment is involved in different neurological illnesses, including mood disorders, neurogenerative diseases, and central nervous system (CNS) injuries. Since reversing neurogenesis impairment was found to improve neurological outcomes in the pathological conditions, it is speculated that modulating neurogenesis is a potential therapeutic strategy for neurological diseases. Among different modulators of neurogenesis, melatonin is a particularly interesting one. In traditional understanding, melatonin controls the circadian rhythm and sleep-wake cycle, although it is not directly involved in the proliferation and survival of neurons. In the last decade, it was reported that melatonin plays an important role in the regulation of neurogenesis, and thus it may be a potential treatment for neurogenesis-related disorders. The present review aims to summarize and discuss the recent findings regarding the protective effects of melatonin on the neurogenesis impairment in different neurological conditions. We also address the molecular mechanisms involved in the actions of melatonin in neurogenesis modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Wai-Hin Leung
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada;
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada
| | - Kwok-Kuen Cheung
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China; (K.-K.C.); (S.P.-C.N.)
| | - Shirley Pui-Ching Ngai
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China; (K.-K.C.); (S.P.-C.N.)
| | - Hector Wing-Hong Tsang
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China; (K.-K.C.); (S.P.-C.N.)
- Correspondence: (H.W.-H.T.); (B.W.-M.L.)
| | - Benson Wui-Man Lau
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China; (K.-K.C.); (S.P.-C.N.)
- Correspondence: (H.W.-H.T.); (B.W.-M.L.)
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8
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García S, Martín Giménez VM, Mocayar Marón FJ, Reiter RJ, Manucha W. Melatonin and cannabinoids: mitochondrial-targeted molecules that may reduce inflammaging in neurodegenerative diseases. Histol Histopathol 2020; 35:789-800. [PMID: 32154907 DOI: 10.14670/hh-18-212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Generally, the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases are associated with advancing age, so they are usually diagnosed in late adulthood. A primary mechanism underlying the onset of neurodegenerative diseases is neuroinflammation. Based on this background, the concept of "neuroinflammaging" has emerged. In this deregulated neuroinflammatory process, a variety of immune cells participate, especially glial cells, proinflammatory cytokines, receptors, and subcellular organelles including mitochondria, which are mainly responsible for maintaining redox balance at the cellular level. Senescence and autophagic processes also play a crucial role in the neuroinflammatory disease associated with aging. Of particular interest, melatonin, cannabinoids, and the receptors of both molecules which are closely related, exert beneficial effects on the neuroinflammatory processes that precede the onset of neurodegenerative pathologies such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Some of these neuroprotective effects are fundamentally related to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative actions at the mitochondrial level due to the strategic functions of this organelle. The aim of this review is to summarize the most recent advances in the study of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration associated with age and to consider the use of new mitochondrial therapeutic targets related to the endocannabinoid system and the pineal gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastián García
- Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Cuyo National University, Mendoza, Argentina.,Institute of Medicine and Experimental Biology of Cuyo (IMBECU), National Council of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Virna Margarita Martín Giménez
- Institute of Research in Chemical Sciences, School of Chemical and Technological Sciences, Cuyo Catholic University, San Juan, Argentina
| | - Feres José Mocayar Marón
- Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Cuyo National University, Mendoza, Argentina.,Institute of Medicine and Experimental Biology of Cuyo (IMBECU), National Council of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Russel J Reiter
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Walter Manucha
- Institute of Medicine and Experimental Biology of Cuyo (IMBECU), National Council of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET), Mendoza, Argentina.,Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Cuyo National University, Mendoza, Argentina.
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Pipová Kokošová N, Kisková T, Vilhanová K, Štafuriková A, Jendželovský R, Račeková E, Šmajda B. Melatonin mitigates hippocampal and cognitive impairments caused by prenatal irradiation. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 52:3575-3594. [PMID: 31985866 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Formation of new neurons and glial cells in the brain is taking place in mammals not only during prenatal embryogenesis but also during adult life. As an enhancer of oxidative stress, ionizing radiation represents a potent inhibitor of neurogenesis and gliogenesis in the brain. It is known that the pineal hormone melatonin is a potent free radical scavenger and counteracts inflammation and apoptosis in brain injuries. The aim of our study was to establish the effects of melatonin on cells in the hippocampus and selected forms of behaviour in prenatally irradiated rats. The male progeny of irradiated (1 Gy of gamma rays; n = 38) and sham-irradiated mothers (n = 19), aged 3 weeks or 2 months, were used in the experiment. Melatonin was administered daily in drinking water (4 mg/kg b. w.) to a subset of animals from each age group. Prenatal irradiation markedly suppressed proliferative activity in the dentate gyrus in both age groups. Melatonin significantly increased the number of proliferative BrdU-positive cells in hilus of young irradiated animals, and the number of mature NeuN-positive neurons in hilus and granular cell layer of the dentate gyrus in these rats and in CA1 region of adult irradiated rats. Moreover, melatonin significantly improved the spatial memory impaired by irradiation, assessed in Morris water maze. A significant correlation between the number of proliferative cells and cognitive performances was found, too. Our study indicates that melatonin may decrease the loss of hippocampal neurons in the CA1 region and improve cognitive abilities after irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natália Pipová Kokošová
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Science, Institute of Biology and Ecology, P. J. Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovak Republic
| | - Terézia Kisková
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Science, Institute of Biology and Ecology, P. J. Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovak Republic
| | - Katarína Vilhanová
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Science, Institute of Biology and Ecology, P. J. Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovak Republic
| | - Andrea Štafuriková
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Science, Institute of Biology and Ecology, P. J. Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovak Republic
| | - Rastislav Jendželovský
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Institute of Biology and Ecology, P. J. Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovak Republic
| | - Enikő Račeková
- Institute of Neurobiology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Košice, Slovak Republic
| | - Beňadik Šmajda
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Science, Institute of Biology and Ecology, P. J. Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovak Republic
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Abstract
Sphingosine, ceramide, sphingosine-1-phosphate, and other related sphingolipids have emerged as important bioactive molecules involved in a variety of key cellular processes such as cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, exosome release, and inter- and intracellular cell communication, making the pathways of sphingolipid metabolism a key domain in maintaining cell homeostasis (Hannun and Obeid, Trends Biochem Sci 20:73-77, 1995; Hannun and Obeid, Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 9:139-150, 2008; Kosaka et al., J Biol Chem 288:10849-10859, 2013). Various studies have determined that these pathways play a central role in regulating intracellular production of ceramide and the other bioactive sphingolipids and hence are an important component of signaling in various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases (Chaube et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 1821:313-323, 2012; Clarke et al., Adv Enzyme Regul 51:51-58, 2011b; Horres and Hannun, Neurochem Res 37:1137-1149, 2012). In this chapter, we discuss one of the major enzyme classes in producing ceramide, sphingomyelinases (SMases), from a biochemical and structural perspective with an emphasis on their applicability as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prajna Shanbhogue
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Yusuf A Hannun
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.
- Stony Brook University Cancer Center, Stony Brook, NY, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.
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11
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Potential new therapies against a toxic relationship: neuroinflammation and Parkinson’s disease. Behav Pharmacol 2019; 30:676-688. [DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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