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Behringer V, Heistermann M, Malaivijitnond S, Schülke O, Ostner J. Developmental and environmental modulation of fecal thyroid hormone levels in wild Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis). Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23530. [PMID: 37365835 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones are key modulators of development, as well as mediators of environmental conditions, by regulating developmental processes and metabolism in primates. Hormone measurement in noninvasively collected samples, that is, feces and urine, is a valuable tool for studying the endocrine function of wildlife, and recent studies have demonstrated the feasibility of measuring thyroid hormones in fecal samples of zoo-housed and wild nonhuman primates. Our study aimed to (i) validate the measurement of immunoreactive fecal total triiodothyronine (IF-T3) in wild Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) and (ii) to investigate its developmental changes and its response to environmental changes, including stress responses, in immature individuals. Fecal samples and environmental parameters were collected from individuals of three social groups of wild Assamese macaques living at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Northeastern Thailand. Our study confirmed the methodological feasibility and biological validity of measuring IF-T3 in this population. Specifically, the biological validation demonstrated higher IF-T3 levels in immatures compared to adults, and higher levels in females during late gestation compared to the preconception stage. Our analysis of IF-T3 levels in developing immature macaques revealed a significant increase with age. Furthermore, we found a positive association between IF-T3 and immunoreactive fecal glucocorticoid levels, an indicator of the physiological stress response. Neither minimum temperature nor fruit abundance predicted variation in IF-T3 levels in the immatures. Our findings indicate the possibility for differing effects of climatic factors and food availability on thyroid hormone level changes in immature versus adult animals and in wild compared to experimental conditions. Overall, our study provides the basis for further investigations into the role of thyroid hormones in shaping species-specific traits, growth, and overall primate development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Behringer
- Endocrinology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Heistermann
- Endocrinology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Suchinda Malaivijitnond
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- National Primate Research Center of Thailand, Chulalongkorn University, Saraburi, Thailand
| | - Oliver Schülke
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
- Behavioral Ecology Department, University of Goettingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Primate Social Evolution Group, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Julia Ostner
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
- Behavioral Ecology Department, University of Goettingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Primate Social Evolution Group, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
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Li BW, Li WB, Xia DP, Zhang T, Yang PP, Li JH. Sleeping sites provide new insight into multiple central place foraging strategies of Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana). Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.1067923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Food resources, including food types, quantity, and quality, are the key factors that determine the survival and reproduction of wild animals. However, the most basic requirement is access to food. The choice of sleeping sites plays a crucial role in efficiently acquiring food and provides a useful starting point for studying foraging strategies. We collected data on sleeping site and foraging patch uses of wild Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) in Huangshan, Anhui, China, from September 2020 to August 2021. We found that Tibetan macaques used 50 different sleeping sites, mostly located on cliffs, some of which they reused. Sleeping site altitude differed significantly according to season, with higher altitudes recorded in summer and winter. Tibetan macaques did not sleep as much as expected in the peripheral regions of their home range. The sleeping sites were often distributed in proximity to foraging patches, and there was a positive correlation between the use of sleeping sites and surrounding foraging patches. The utilization of foraging patches by Tibetan macaques is inclined towards the multiple central place foraging strategy. Our results provide supportive evidence for the proximity to food resource hypothesis and indicate the important role of sleeping sites in food resource utilization in Tibetan macaques.
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Seasonal Change in Activity Rhythms and Time Budgets of Tibetan Macaques. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11091260. [PMID: 36138739 PMCID: PMC9495467 DOI: 10.3390/biology11091260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Activity rhythms and time budgets are important to understand behavioral variability and adaptation in primates because animals normally use a behavioral adjustment as a preferential choice in response to environmental changes. Therefore, we observed a group of un-provisioned Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) in Tianhu Mountain County Nature Reserve, Mount Huangshan, Southern Anhui, China. We used the instantaneous scan sampling method to collect behavioral data on their activity rhythms and time budget. The results showed that Tibetan macaques have two foraging peaks (9:00–10:00 and 14:00–15:00) and a resting peak at 12:00–13:00. They spent 31.96% resting, 28.59% foraging, 26.96% moving, 6.90% grooming, and 5.59% other. The total time of foraging and moving per month significantly and positively correlated with fruits and buds and negatively correlated with leaves. Different sexes and age groups demonstrated different activity time budgets, with adult males, adult females, and young macaques spending most of their time resting, grooming, and playing, respectively. We elucidated the effects of different environmental conditions on Tibetan macaques and their behavioral adaptation strategies.
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Zhang K, Karim F, Jin Z, Xiao H, Yao Y, Ni Q, Li B, Pu-Cuo W, Huang Z, Xu H. Diet and feeding behavior of a group of high-altitude rhesus macaques: high adaptation to food shortages and seasonal fluctuations. Curr Zool 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Diet and feeding behavior data are crucial to a deep understanding of the behavioral response and adaptation of primates to a high-altitude environment. From August 2019 to June 2021, we collected data on the feeding behavior of a high-altitude rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta group from Yajiang County, Western Sichuan Plateau, which has an altitude of over 3,500 m. The results showed that feeding (33.0 ± 1.8%) and moving (28.3 ± 2.6%) were the dominant behavior of rhesus macaques. Macaques ate 193 food items, comprising 11 food categories from 90 species. Our study found that plant roots (30.9±30.1%) and young leaves (28.0±33.1%) were the main foods eaten by macaques. The preferred foods of rhesus macaques were young leaves, fruits and seeds, and the consumption of these items was positively correlated with its food availability. When the availability of preferred foods was low, macaques took plant roots, barks and fallen leaves as fallback foods. In particular, roots were a dominant food item in winter, and this way of feeding became a key survival strategy. Our results suggest that, facing the relative scarcity and strong seasonal fluctuations of food resources in high-altitude habitat, macaques adopt active foraging strategies, relying on a variety of food species and adjusting flexibly their food choices based on food availability, which may help to maximize the energy efficiency of high-altitude macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kechu Zhang
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guiling 541006 , Guangxi, China
| | - Fazal Karim
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
| | - Zuxiang Jin
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
| | - Hongtao Xiao
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
| | - Yongfang Yao
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
| | - Qingyong Ni
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130 , Sichuan, China
| | - Bajin Li
- Gexigou National Nature Reserve Administration, Yajiang Forestry and Grassland Administration , Ganzi 627450, Sichuan, China
| | - Wangjia Pu-Cuo
- Gexigou National Nature Reserve Administration, Yajiang Forestry and Grassland Administration , Ganzi 627450, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhonghao Huang
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guiling 541006 , Guangxi, China
| | - Huailiang Xu
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
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Kluiver CE, de Jong JA, Massen JJM, Bhattacharjee D. Personality as a Predictor of Time-Activity Budget in Lion-Tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12121495. [PMID: 35739832 PMCID: PMC9219468 DOI: 10.3390/ani12121495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Time-activity budgets describe how animals divide their day into various behaviours and activities, e.g., time spent foraging or resting. Activity budgets can serve as crucial indicators of energy intake and expenditure, providing better knowledge of a species’ lifestyle. The conventional trend has been to explore group-level time-activity budgets; however, individuals may also vary in their time-activity budgets (e.g., one individual foraging more than another), with the influencing mechanisms still poorly understood. We propose that animal personality, a behavioural and cognitive profile that makes one individual different from another, may explain why individuals vary in their time-activity budgets. We used a multi-method approach comprised of behavioural observations and experiments to assess the personality traits of lion-tailed macaques. The observed traits were used to predict individual time-activity budgets, broadly categorised into food-related, active, and resting behaviours. We then discuss the significance of this novel approach in light of lion-tailed macaque ecology, conservation, and welfare. Abstract Time-activity budget, i.e., how a population or an individual divides their day into various behaviours and activities, is an important ecological aspect. Existing research primarily focused on group-level time-activity budgets, while individual variations have only been reported recently. However, little is known about how consistent inter-individual differences or personalities influence time-activity budgets. We examined the personalities of lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) and investigated their influence on individual time-activity budgets. The resulting personality traits, namely persistence, sociability, affiliation, and anxiety, were used to predict the three broad categories of the time-activity budget—food-related, active, and resting behaviours. We found that persistence and sociability positively predicted the time spent being active. Food-related behaviours were positively predicted by persistence, while anxiety was found to influence them negatively. The time spent resting was negatively predicted by persistence. We did not find an effect of affiliation on the time-activity budgets. We discuss these findings in light of the ecology of lion-tailed macaques. Our study highlights the importance of a novel approach that uses animal personality traits as predictors of individual time-activity budgets and offers insights regarding the use of personality assessments in conservation and welfare activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte E. Kluiver
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.E.K.); (J.J.M.M.)
| | - Jolanda A. de Jong
- Department of Applied Biology, Aeres University of Applied Sciences, Arboretum West 98, 1325 WB Almere, The Netherlands;
| | - Jorg J. M. Massen
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.E.K.); (J.J.M.M.)
| | - Debottam Bhattacharjee
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.E.K.); (J.J.M.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-30-253-2550
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Zheng J, Zhang K, Liang J, Li Y, Huang Z. Food availability, temperature, and day length drive seasonal variations in the positional behavior of white-headed langurs in the limestone forests of Southwest Guangxi, China. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:14857-14872. [PMID: 34765146 PMCID: PMC8571639 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Information on positional behavior contributes to the understanding of the ecological adaptation mechanisms in animals. We collected data on the positional behavior of white-headed langurs (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) at the Guangxi Chongzuo White-Headed Langur National Nature Reserve from September 2016 to August 2017 via instantaneous scan sampling method. This study aimed to examine the importance of positional behavior flexibility in limestone forests characterized by seasonal variations in climate and food resources. Our results indicated that langurs adopted leaping (47.92% ± 5.50%) and vertical climbing (40.13% ± 6.20%) as their predominant locomotor modes and sitting (83.08% ± 4.70%) as their predominant posture. Their positional behavior exhibited marked seasonal variations. More specifically, langurs used quadrupedal walking more frequently during the dry season than during the rainy months. In the stationary state, they sat more frequently during the dry season, whereas they laid and suspended more often during the rainy season. Their positional behavior was affected by fruit availability, day length, and temperature. Quadrupedal walking increased with the decrease in fruit availability, whereas leaping was positively correlated with fruit availability. Moreover, sitting was positively correlated with average temperature but negatively correlated with day length. Lying was also negatively correlated with temperature but positively correlated with day length. We conclude that white-headed langurs adapt to limestone forests with positional behavior flexibility in response to seasonality. Our research provides evidence of the effects of food availability, ambient temperature, and day length on the positional behavior of white-headed langurs, highlighting the need to understand their behavioral ecology and the influence of ecological factors on behavioral adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjin Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of EducationGuilinChina
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal EcologyGuangxi Normal UniversityGuilinChina
| | - Kechu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of EducationGuilinChina
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal EcologyGuangxi Normal UniversityGuilinChina
| | - Jipeng Liang
- Administration Center of Guangxi Chongzuo White‐Headed Langur National Nature ReserveChongzuoChina
| | - Youbang Li
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of EducationGuilinChina
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal EcologyGuangxi Normal UniversityGuilinChina
| | - Zhonghao Huang
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of EducationGuilinChina
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal EcologyGuangxi Normal UniversityGuilinChina
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Zhang KC, Zhou QH, Xu HL, Huang ZH. Diet, food availability, and climatic factors drive ranging behavior in white-headed langurs in the limestone forests of Guangxi, southwest China. Zool Res 2021; 42:406-411. [PMID: 34075733 PMCID: PMC8317190 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in abiotic and biotic factors can affect the efficiency of biological systems in animals, forcing them to adjust their behaviors in response to daily and seasonal variations. From September 2016 to August 2017, we collected ranging behavior data on four groups of white-headed langurs ( Trachypithecus leucocephalus) in the Guangxi Chongzuo White-Headed Langur National Nature Reserve, Guangxi, southwest China. We simultaneously analyzed how multiple ecological factors affect langur ranging behavior, which should facilitate our understanding of the potential mechanisms underlying their adaptation to limestone habitats. Results showed that langur ranging behavior was significantly affected by diet composition, food availability, and climatic factors. Specifically, moving time and daily path length increased with the increase in dietary diversity. Furthermore, moving time and daily path length were positively associated with the availability of fruit and relative humidity of the forest, and moderately associated with temperature and relative humidity of bare rock. Our study demonstrated that langurs maintain stable moving and feeding times and exhibit a short daily travel distance, likely adopting an energy-conserving behavioral strategy in response to food shortages and high temperatures in the fragmented karst forest. These results highlight the importance of food availability and temperature in shaping the ranging behavior of these karst-dwelling primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke-Chu Zhang
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, Sichuan 625014, China
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China
| | - Qi-Hai Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China
| | - Huai-Liang Xu
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, Sichuan 625014, China. E-mail:
| | - Zhong-Hao Huang
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China. E-mail:
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Souza-Alves JP, Chagas RRD, Santana MM, Boyle SA, Bezerra BM. Food availability, plant diversity, and vegetation structure drive behavioral and ecological variation in Endangered Coimbra-Filho's titi monkeys. Am J Primatol 2021; 83:e23237. [PMID: 33528872 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
There is wide variability in primate behavior and ecology. Understanding how frugivorous primates behave under different habitat fragmentation levels is key for effective conservation and management of species and their habitats. We evaluated the seasonality in activity budget, diet, and ranging behavior of two groups of Endangered Coimbra-Filho's titi monkeys (Callicebus coimbrai). One group inhabited a 14-ha forest fragment, whereas the other lived in a 522-ha fragment. We measured the monthly density of trees and lianas available as food sources over 8 months. We also collected behavioral and group location data every 5 min, from dawn to dusk, using the scan sampling method. The two forest fragments differed seasonally in the number of fruiting food-resource available. In the 14-ha fragment, we found that the time spent by titi monkeys feeding, foraging, resting, and traveling differed seasonally. In the 522-ha fragment, titi monkeys exhibited seasonal differences in time spent sleeping, socializing, foraging, and revisiting food sources. In both titi monkey groups, diets varied seasonally. Our findings indicate that Coimbra-Filho's titi monkeys can exhibit behavioral flexibility in their activity budgets, diets, and movement patterns. Such flexibility is important for this species to survive in fragmented habitats and may be linked to three key factors: species-specific resource availability, plant species diversity, and the vegetation structure of each forest fragment.
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Affiliation(s)
- João P Souza-Alves
- Postgraduate Program in Animal Biology, Department of Zoology, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Biological Science, Department of Systematics and Ecology, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil.,Department of Zoology, Laboratory of Ecology, Behavior and Conservation (LECC), Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
| | - Renata R D Chagas
- Postgraduate Program in Biological Science, Department of Systematics and Ecology, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Marina M Santana
- Postgraduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Brazil
| | - Sarah A Boyle
- Department of Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Bruna M Bezerra
- Postgraduate Program in Animal Biology, Department of Zoology, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil.,Department of Zoology, Laboratory of Ecology, Behavior and Conservation (LECC), Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
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