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Axel AC, Harshbarger BM, Lewis RJ, Tecot SR. Consistency in Verreaux's sifaka home range and core area size despite seasonal variation in resource availability as assessed by Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI). Am J Primatol 2024; 86:e23617. [PMID: 38467494 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Primates are adept at dealing with fluctuating availability of resources and display a range of responses to minimize the effects of food scarcity. An important component of primate conservation is to understand how primates adapt their foraging and ranging patterns in response to fluctuating food resources. Animals optimize resource acquisition within the home range through the selection of resource-bearing patches and choose between contrasting foraging strategies (resource-maximizing vs. area-minimizing). Our study aimed to characterize the foraging strategy of a folivorous primate, Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), by evaluating whether group home range size varied between peak and lean leaf seasons within a seasonally dry tropical forest in Madagascar. We hypothesized that Verreaux's sifaka used the resource maximization strategy to select high-value resource patches so that during periods of resource depression, the home range area did not significantly change in size. We characterized resource availability (i.e., primary productivity) by season at Kirindy Mitea National Park using remotely-sensed Enhanced Vegetation Index data. We calculated group home ranges using 10 years of focal animal sampling data collected on eight groups using both 95% and 50% kernel density estimation. We used area accumulation curves to ensure each group had an adequate number of locations to reach seasonal home range asymptotes. Neither 95% home ranges nor 50% core areas differed across peak and lean leaf resource seasons, supporting the hypothesis that Verreaux's sifaka use a resource maximization strategy. With a better understanding of animal space use strategies, managers can model anticipated changes under environmental and/or anthropogenic resource depression scenarios. These findings demonstrate the value of long-term data for characterizing and understanding foraging and ranging patterns. We also illustrate the benefits of using satellite data for characterizing food resources for folivorous primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne C Axel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, USA
| | | | - Rebecca J Lewis
- Department of Anthropology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Stacey R Tecot
- Laboratory for the Evolutionary Endocrinology of Primates, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
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Zhao L, Ji SN, Du XB, Liu JH, Zhang BL, Li PH, Yang YJ, Li BG, Guo YQ, Qi XG. Dynamic foraging strategy adaptation to heterogeneous environments contributes to social aggregation in snub-nosed monkeys. Zool Res 2024; 45:39-54. [PMID: 38114432 PMCID: PMC10839657 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2023.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The dynamics of animal social structures are heavily influenced by environmental patterns of competition and cooperation. In folivorous colobine primates, prevailing theories suggest that larger group sizes should be favored in rainforests with a year-round abundance of food, thereby reducing feeding competition. Yet, paradoxically, larger groups are frequently found in high-altitude or high-latitude montane ecosystems characterized by a seasonal scarcity of leaves. This contradiction is posited to arise from cooperative benefits in heterogeneous environments. To investigate this hypothesis, we carried out a six-year field study on two neighboring groups of golden snub-nosed monkey ( Rhinopithecus roxellana), a species representing the northernmost distribution of colobine primates. Results showed that the groups adjusted their movement and habitat selection in response to fluctuating climates and spatiotemporal variability of resources, indicative of a dynamic foraging strategy. Notably, during the cold, resource-scarce conditions in winter, the large group occupied food-rich habitats but did not exhibit significantly longer daily travel distances than the smaller neighboring group. Subsequently, we compiled an eco-behavioral dataset of 52 colobine species to explore their evolutionary trajectories. Analysis of this dataset suggested that the increase in group size may have evolved via home range expansion in response to the cold and heterogeneous climates found at higher altitudes or latitudes. Hence, we developed a multi-benefits framework to interpret the formation of larger groups by integrating environmental heterogeneity. In cold and diverse environments, even smaller groups require larger home ranges to meet their dynamic survival needs. The spatiotemporal distribution of high-quality resources within these expanded home ranges facilitates more frequent interactions between groups, thereby encouraging social aggregation into larger groups. This process enhances the benefits of collaborative actions and reproductive opportunities, while simultaneously optimizing travel costs through a dynamic foraging strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Sheng-Nan Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Xiao-Bing Du
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Jia-Hui Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Bo-Lun Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Pei-Hua Li
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Yi-Jun Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Bao-Guo Li
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Yan-Qing Guo
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Xiao-Guang Qi
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China. E-mail:
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Souza-Alves JP, Hilário RR, Fontes IP, Thomas WW, de Vasconcellos Barbosa MR. Direct links between resource availability and activity budget better reveal ecological patterns of endangered Coimbra-Filho's titi monkey. Primates 2024; 65:49-59. [PMID: 37805969 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-023-01095-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
Many primatological studies do not assess direct indexes of food availability to make inferences about behavioral strategies. We related the diet and behavior of a group of Callicebus coimbrai in northeastern Brazil to fruit availability indexes and compared this pattern between seasons (direct and indirect assessment of food availability) to assess whether direct and indirect approaches detect similar ecological patterns. We monitored the study group for 33 months (5 days/month) via scan sampling. The monthly availability of fruits and new leaves was recorded in phenological transects. Fruit availability varied across years based on fruit prevalence, and timing and duration of the abundant seasons. We did not find evidence of a time-minimizing strategy, since C. coimbrai did not change its activity levels according to food availability. However, the negative relationship between foraging and fruit availability indicates that C. coimbrai can compensate for the lower fruit availability by increasing the search for alternative food sources. Monthly fruit consumption was positively correlated to fruit availability and negatively related to the consumption of other food items. However, the behavioral and feeding profiles did not vary between seasons and were not related to rainfall levels. Primate studies should directly relate behavioral and feeding profiles to fruit availability indices, thus avoiding using seasons as proxies of food availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Pedro Souza-Alves
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil.
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Animal, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil.
- Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil.
- Laboratório de Ecologia, Centro de Biociências, Comportamento e Conservação (LECC), Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil.
| | - Renato R Hilário
- Departamento de Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento, Universidade Federal de Amapá, Macapá, Brazil
| | | | | | - Maria Regina de Vasconcellos Barbosa
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
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Rahalinarivo V, Rakotomanana HF, Randrianasy J, Ranaivoarisoa JF, Ramorasata B, Raharison JLF, Irwin M. Activity budget and seasonal activity shifts in sympatric lemurs: Increased lean season effort in a cathemeral frugivore contrasts with energy conservation in a diurnal folivore. Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23556. [PMID: 37779335 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
One of the most fundamental aspects of a species' behavioral strategy is its activity budget; for primates this generally involves the allocation of available time among resting, feeding, traveling, and social behavior. Comparisons between species, populations, or individuals can reveal divergences in adaptive strategies and current stressors, and reflect responses to such diverse pressures as predation, thermoregulation, nutrition, and social needs. Further, variation across seasons is an important part of behavioral strategies to survive food scarcity; this can involve increasing or decreasing effort. We documented activity over the 24-h cycle for the cathemeral, frugivorous Eulemur fulvus and the diurnal, folivorous Propithecus diadema across 13-18 months at Tsinjoarivo, Madagascar. Their activity budgets were dominated by resting (E. fulvus: 74.1%; P. diadema: 85.2%), followed by feeding (15.8%, 12.4%), traveling (9.31%, 1.74%) and social activities (0.76%, 0.70%), respectively. The lower feeding and higher resting in P. diadema likely reflect slower gastrointestinal transit and higher reliance on microbial fermentation to extract energy from fibrous food. The two species showed opposite lean season strategies. E. fulvus increased activity, with more feeding but less travel time, consistent with a shift to less-profitable fruits, and some leaves and flowers, while increasing feeding effort to compensate ("energy maximizing"). P. diadema showed less variation across months, but the lean season still evoked reduced effort across the board (feeding, travel, and social behavior), consistent with a "time minimizing" strategy prioritizing energy conservation and microbe-assisted digestion. Understanding these divergent shifts is key to understanding natural behavior and the extent of behavioral flexibility under stressful conditions. Finally, the complex patterns of fruit availability (intra- and interannually) and the species' behavioral responses across months underscore the need to move beyond simplistic "lean/abundant season" and "fruit/leaf" dichotomies in understanding underlying energetic strategies, and species' vulnerability to habitat change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vololonirina Rahalinarivo
- Department of Anthropobiology and Sustainable Development, Faculty of Sciences, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | - Jeannot Randrianasy
- Department of Anthropobiology and Sustainable Development, Faculty of Sciences, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Jean Freddy Ranaivoarisoa
- Department of Anthropobiology and Sustainable Development, Faculty of Sciences, University of Antananarivo, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | | | - Mitchell Irwin
- Department of Anthropology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, USA
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Geographic, climatic, and phylogenetic drivers of variation in colobine activity budgets. Primates 2022; 63:647-658. [PMID: 36083406 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-022-01015-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Folivorous primates are typically considered time minimizers because the constraints of their unique digestive systems require them to spend a large portion of their activity budgets resting. However, inter- and intraspecific behavioral variation in their activity budgets may be influenced by local geographic and climatic conditions and evolutionary history. We compiled 48 studies representing ten genera, 31 species, and 50 populations to assess geographic (elevation, latitude), climatic (precipitation, temperature), and phylogenetic correlates of colobine activity budgets. Time spent resting negatively correlated with time spent feeding, moving, and socializing. Except for time spent socializing, activity budgets were independent of phylogeny, with more time spent feeding and less time resting in higher-elevation habitats and at lower temperatures. Among the four most common genera in our sample, only in Rhinopithecus did time spent feeding increase with higher elevations (range, 950-3950 m above mean sea level) and lower temperatures (range, 0.9-25 ℃). Only in Trachypithecus did time spent resting decrease with lower temperatures (range, 19-25 ℃). Our findings suggest that there are no apparent effects of geographic or climatic gradients on colobine activity budgets except for Rhinopithecus and Trachypithecus, whose activities are biased in favor of energy maximization rather than time minimization. Compared with other colobines, the ability of Rhinopithecus to adapt their activity budget at high elevations may make them less vulnerable to climate change, while the greater sensitivity of Trachypithecus to heat may make them more vulnerable to climate change.
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Ecological Flexibility of Propithecus edwardsi in Two Forest Habitats with Different Logging Histories in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. INT J PRIMATOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-022-00308-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Zhang K, Karim F, Jin Z, Xiao H, Yao Y, Ni Q, Li B, Pu-Cuo W, Huang Z, Xu H. Diet and feeding behavior of a group of high-altitude rhesus macaques: high adaptation to food shortages and seasonal fluctuations. Curr Zool 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Diet and feeding behavior data are crucial to a deep understanding of the behavioral response and adaptation of primates to a high-altitude environment. From August 2019 to June 2021, we collected data on the feeding behavior of a high-altitude rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta group from Yajiang County, Western Sichuan Plateau, which has an altitude of over 3,500 m. The results showed that feeding (33.0 ± 1.8%) and moving (28.3 ± 2.6%) were the dominant behavior of rhesus macaques. Macaques ate 193 food items, comprising 11 food categories from 90 species. Our study found that plant roots (30.9±30.1%) and young leaves (28.0±33.1%) were the main foods eaten by macaques. The preferred foods of rhesus macaques were young leaves, fruits and seeds, and the consumption of these items was positively correlated with its food availability. When the availability of preferred foods was low, macaques took plant roots, barks and fallen leaves as fallback foods. In particular, roots were a dominant food item in winter, and this way of feeding became a key survival strategy. Our results suggest that, facing the relative scarcity and strong seasonal fluctuations of food resources in high-altitude habitat, macaques adopt active foraging strategies, relying on a variety of food species and adjusting flexibly their food choices based on food availability, which may help to maximize the energy efficiency of high-altitude macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kechu Zhang
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guiling 541006 , Guangxi, China
| | - Fazal Karim
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
| | - Zuxiang Jin
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
| | - Hongtao Xiao
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
| | - Yongfang Yao
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
| | - Qingyong Ni
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130 , Sichuan, China
| | - Bajin Li
- Gexigou National Nature Reserve Administration, Yajiang Forestry and Grassland Administration , Ganzi 627450, Sichuan, China
| | - Wangjia Pu-Cuo
- Gexigou National Nature Reserve Administration, Yajiang Forestry and Grassland Administration , Ganzi 627450, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhonghao Huang
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guiling 541006 , Guangxi, China
| | - Huailiang Xu
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an 625014 , Sichuan, China
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Teichroeb JA, Adams FV, Khwaja A, Stapelfeldt K, Stead SM. Tight quarters: ranging and feeding competition in a Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii multilevel society occupying a fragmented habitat. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03166-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Adams FV, Arseneau‐Robar TJM, Bonnell TR, Stead SM, Teichroeb JA. Temporal patterns in the social network of core units in Rwenzori Angolan colobus monkeys: Effects of food availability and interunit dispersal. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:3251-3263. [PMID: 33841781 PMCID: PMC8019045 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Multi-level societies are complex, nested social systems where basic social groups (i.e., core units) associate in a hierarchical manner, allowing animals to adjust their group sizes in response to variables such as food availability, predation, or conspecific threat. These pressures fluctuate over time and examining the extent to which this variation affects the clustering of core units into different tiers may be instrumental in understanding the evolution of multi-level societies.The goal of our study was to determine the degree of temporal variability in interunit associations in a multi-level society of Rwenzori Angolan colobus monkey (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii), and to determine the social and ecological factors that underlie association patterns. The C. a. ruwenzorii multi-level society consists of at least three tiers, with core units clustering into clans that share a home range in a band tier.We performed social network analyses on 21 months of association data from 13 core units (totaling 139 identifiable individuals) at Lake Nabugabo, Uganda. We described the patterns of variation in core-unit associations over time and investigated how changes in rainfall, food availability, and interunit dispersals were correlated with these associations over the short-term (month to month) and long-term (year to year).Although clans were relatively stable, larger-scale changes in association patterns included the formation of an all-male unit and the transfer of one core unit between clans (within the band tier). Seasonally, core units associated significantly more when fruit, their preferred food source, was abundant (i.e., social networks were denser and more clustered) and there was no direct effect of rainfall seasonality or young leaf availability. Male dispersals also occurred more during periods of high fruit availability, suggesting that greater band cohesion allowed males to prospect and transfer between core units. Once males transferred, their previous and new units associated significantly more with one another than with other core units for 1-2 months postdispersal. The dispersal of five males from one core unit to another in a different clan co-occurred with this core unit switching its clan affiliation.By examining temporal shifts in social network structure among core units, this study shows the interconnected roles that food availability and dispersal have in shaping the C. a. ruwenzorii multi-level social system. Our findings highlight how ecological conditions can drive association patterns, impact interunit relationships, and influence social organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances V. Adams
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Toronto ScarboroughTorontoONCanada
| | | | - Tyler R. Bonnell
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of LethbridgeLethbridgeABCanada
| | - Samantha M. Stead
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Toronto ScarboroughTorontoONCanada
| | - Julie A. Teichroeb
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Toronto ScarboroughTorontoONCanada
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