1
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Allen BJ, Frye H, Ramanathan R, Caggiano LR, Tabima DM, Chesler NC, Philip JL. Biomechanical and Mechanobiological Drivers of the Transition From PostCapillary Pulmonary Hypertension to Combined Pre-/PostCapillary Pulmonary Hypertension. J Am Heart Assoc 2023; 12:e028121. [PMID: 36734341 PMCID: PMC9973648 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.122.028121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Combined pre-/postcapillary pulmonary hypertension (Cpc-PH), a complication of left heart failure, is associated with higher mortality rates than isolated postcapillary pulmonary hypertension alone. Currently, knowledge gaps persist on the mechanisms responsible for the progression of isolated postcapillary pulmonary hypertension (Ipc-PH) to Cpc-PH. Here, we review the biomechanical and mechanobiological impact of left heart failure on pulmonary circulation, including mechanotransduction of these pathological forces, which lead to altered biological signaling and detrimental remodeling, driving the progression to Cpc-PH. We focus on pathologically increased cyclic stretch and decreased wall shear stress; mechanotransduction by endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and pulmonary arterial fibroblasts; and signaling-stimulated remodeling of the pulmonary veins, capillaries, and arteries that propel the transition from Ipc-PH to Cpc-PH. Identifying biomechanical and mechanobiological mechanisms of Cpc-PH progression may highlight potential pharmacologic avenues to prevent right heart failure and subsequent mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betty J. Allen
- Department of SurgeryUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWI
| | - Hailey Frye
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWI
| | - Rasika Ramanathan
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWI
| | - Laura R. Caggiano
- Edwards Lifesciences Foundation Cardiovascular Innovation and Research Center and Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of CaliforniaIrvineCA
| | - Diana M. Tabima
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWI
| | - Naomi C. Chesler
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWI
- Edwards Lifesciences Foundation Cardiovascular Innovation and Research Center and Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of CaliforniaIrvineCA
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2
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Novak C, Ballinger MN, Ghadiali S. Mechanobiology of Pulmonary Diseases: A Review of Engineering Tools to Understand Lung Mechanotransduction. J Biomech Eng 2021; 143:110801. [PMID: 33973005 PMCID: PMC8299813 DOI: 10.1115/1.4051118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cells within the lung micro-environment are continuously subjected to dynamic mechanical stimuli which are converted into biochemical signaling events in a process known as mechanotransduction. In pulmonary diseases, the abrogated mechanical conditions modify the homeostatic signaling which influences cellular phenotype and disease progression. The use of in vitro models has significantly expanded our understanding of lung mechanotransduction mechanisms. However, our ability to match complex facets of the lung including three-dimensionality, multicellular interactions, and multiple simultaneous forces is limited and it has proven difficult to replicate and control these factors in vitro. The goal of this review is to (a) outline the anatomy of the pulmonary system and the mechanical stimuli that reside therein, (b) describe how disease impacts the mechanical micro-environment of the lung, and (c) summarize how existing in vitro models have contributed to our current understanding of pulmonary mechanotransduction. We also highlight critical needs in the pulmonary mechanotransduction field with an emphasis on next-generation devices that can simulate the complex mechanical and cellular environment of the lung. This review provides a comprehensive basis for understanding the current state of knowledge in pulmonary mechanotransduction and identifying the areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caymen Novak
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, The Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Wexner Medical Center, 473 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Megan N. Ballinger
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, The Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Wexner Medical Center, 473 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Samir Ghadiali
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, The Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Wexner Medical Center, 473 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210; Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Ohio State University, 2124N Fontana Labs, 140 West 19th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210
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3
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Manning EP, Ramachandra AB, Schupp JC, Cavinato C, Raredon MSB, Bärnthaler T, Cosme C, Singh I, Tellides G, Kaminski N, Humphrey JD. Mechanisms of Hypoxia-Induced Pulmonary Arterial Stiffening in Mice Revealed by a Functional Genetics Assay of Structural, Functional, and Transcriptomic Data. Front Physiol 2021; 12:726253. [PMID: 34594238 PMCID: PMC8478173 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.726253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia adversely affects the pulmonary circulation of mammals, including vasoconstriction leading to elevated pulmonary arterial pressures. The clinical importance of changes in the structure and function of the large, elastic pulmonary arteries is gaining increased attention, particularly regarding impact in multiple chronic cardiopulmonary conditions. We establish a multi-disciplinary workflow to understand better transcriptional, microstructural, and functional changes of the pulmonary artery in response to sustained hypoxia and how these changes inter-relate. We exposed adult male C57BL/6J mice to normoxic or hypoxic (FiO2 10%) conditions. Excised pulmonary arteries were profiled transcriptionally using single cell RNA sequencing, imaged with multiphoton microscopy to determine microstructural features under in vivo relevant multiaxial loading, and phenotyped biomechanically to quantify associated changes in material stiffness and vasoactive capacity. Pulmonary arteries of hypoxic mice exhibited an increased material stiffness that was likely due to collagen remodeling rather than excessive deposition (fibrosis), a change in smooth muscle cell phenotype reflected by decreased contractility and altered orientation aligning these cells in the same direction as the remodeled collagen fibers, endothelial proliferation likely representing endothelial-to-mesenchymal transitioning, and a network of cell-type specific transcriptomic changes that drove these changes. These many changes resulted in a system-level increase in pulmonary arterial pulse wave velocity, which may drive a positive feedback loop exacerbating all changes. These findings demonstrate the power of a multi-scale genetic-functional assay. They also highlight the need for systems-level analyses to determine which of the many changes are clinically significant and may be potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward P Manning
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.,VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States
| | - Abhay B Ramachandra
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Jonas C Schupp
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.,Respiratory Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Cristina Cavinato
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Micha Sam Brickman Raredon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.,Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Thomas Bärnthaler
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.,Division of Pharmacology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Carlos Cosme
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Inderjit Singh
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - George Tellides
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States.,Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Naftali Kaminski
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Jay D Humphrey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.,Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
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4
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Zeinali S, Thompson EK, Gerhardt H, Geiser T, Guenat OT. Remodeling of an in vitro microvessel exposed to cyclic mechanical stretch. APL Bioeng 2021; 5:026102. [PMID: 33834157 PMCID: PMC8019357 DOI: 10.1063/5.0010159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In the lungs, vascular endothelial cells experience cyclic mechanical strain resulting from rhythmic breathing motions and intraluminal blood pressure. Mechanical stress creates evident physiological, morphological, biochemical, and gene expression changes in vascular endothelial cells. However, the exact mechanisms of the mechanical signal transduction into biological responses remain to be clarified. Besides, the level of mechanical stress is difficult to determine due to the complexity of the local distension patterns in the lungs and thus assumed to be the same as the one acting on the alveolar epithelium. Existing in vitro models used to investigate the effect of mechanical stretch on endothelial cells are usually limited to two-dimensional (2D) cell culture platforms, which poorly mimic the typical three-dimensional structure of the vessels. Therefore, the development of an advanced in vitro vasculature model that closely mimics the dynamic of the human lung vasculatures is highly needed. Here, we present the first study that investigates the interplay of the three-dimensional (3D) mechanical cyclic stretch and its magnitude with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) stimulation on a 3D perfusable vasculature in vitro. We studied the effects of the cyclic strain on a perfusable 3D vasculature, made of either human lung microvascular endothelial cells or human umbilical vein endothelial cells embedded in a gel layer. The in vitro 3D vessels underwent both in vivo-like longitudinal and circumferential deformations, simultaneously. Our results showed that the responses of the human lung microvascular endothelial cells and human umbilical vein endothelial cells to cyclic stretch were in good agreement. Although our 3D model was in agreement with the 2D model in predicting a cytoskeletal remodeling in response to different magnitudes of cyclic stretch, however, we observed several phenomena in the 3D model that the 2D model was unable to predict. Angiogenic sprouting induced by VEGF decreased significantly in the presence of cyclic stretch. Similarly, while treatment with VEGF increased vascular permeability, the cyclic stretch restored vascular barrier tightness and significantly decreased vascular permeability. One of the major findings of this study was that a 3D microvasculature can be exposed to a much higher mechanical cyclic stress level than reported in the literature without any dysfunction of its barrier. For higher magnitudes of the cyclic stretch, the applied longitudinal strain level was 14% and the associated circumferential strain reached the equivalent of 63%. In sharp contrast to our findings, such strain typically leads to the disruption of the endothelial barrier in a 2D stretching assay and is considered pathological. This highlights the importance of 3D modeling to investigate mechanobiology effects rather than using a simple endothelial monolayer, which truly recapitulates the in vivo situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soheila Zeinali
- Organs-on-Chip Technologies Laboratory, ARTORG Center, University of Bern, 3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Emily K. Thompson
- Organs-on-Chip Technologies Laboratory, ARTORG Center, University of Bern, 3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Holger Gerhardt
- Integrative Vascular Biology Laboratory, Max-Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC),13092 Berlin, Germany
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5
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Holmes D, Corr M, Thomas G, Harbinson M, Campbell M, Spiers P, Bell D. Protective effects of intermedin/adrenomedullin-2 in a cellular model of human pulmonary arterial hypertension. Peptides 2020; 126:170267. [PMID: 32017948 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2020.170267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Proliferation of pulmonary fibroblasts (PF) and distal migration of smooth muscle cells (PSM) are hallmarks of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Intermedin/adrenomedullin-2 (IMD/AM2) belongs to the Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP)/Adrenomedullin (AM) superfamily. These peptides act via Calcitonin-Like Receptors (CLR) combined with one of three Receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs). IMD/AM2 is a potent pulmonary vasodilator in animal studies. The aim was to describe expression of IMD/AM2, AM and receptor components in human pulmonary vascular cells and to elucidate effects of IMD/AM2 on human PSM migration and PF proliferation. Gene expression was detected by immunofluorescence, immunoblotting and qRT-PCR. Normotension and hypertension were simulated by applying pulsatile mechanical stretch (Flexcell® apparatus). Viable cell numbers were determined by dye exclusion. PSM chemotaxis was measured via Dunn chamber. IMD/AM2 protein was co-expressed with AM and their receptor components in pulmonary artery and microvascular endothelial (PAEC, PMVEC) and non-endothelial cells (PF, PSM), and localised to vesicles. IMD/AM2 was secreted under basal conditions, most abundantly from PF and PMVEC. Secretion from PF and PSM was enhanced by stretch. IMD/AM2 mRNA expression increased in response to hypertensive stretch of PSM. IMD/AM2 inhibited PDGF (10-7 M)-mediated PSM migration maximally at 3 × 10-10 M and PF proliferation maximally at 3 × 10-9 M. Angiotensin II (5 × 10-8 M), normotensive and hypertensive stretch augmented PF proliferation. IMD/AM2 (10-9 M) abolished the proliferative effects of Angiotensin II and normotensive stretch and attenuated the proliferative effect of hypertensive stretch alone and combined with angiotensin II. These findings indicate an important counter-regulatory role for IMD/AM2 in PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Holmes
- School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Corr
- School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin Thomas
- School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Harbinson
- School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Malcolm Campbell
- School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Spiers
- School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - David Bell
- School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
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6
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Meng L, Liu X, Teng X, Gu H, Yuan W, Meng J, Li J, Zheng Z, Wei Y, Hu S. Osteopontin plays important roles in pulmonary arterial hypertension induced by systemic-to-pulmonary shunt. FASEB J 2019; 33:7236-7251. [PMID: 30893567 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201802121rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies indicated that osteopontin (OPN) was involved in the genesis and progression of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH); however, its role in congenital heart disease-associated PAH (CHD/PAH) remains unknown. Our results showed that OPN was increased in lungs and plasma of patients with Eisenmenger syndrome; moreover, OPN and αVβ3-integrin expression levels were augmented in rat lungs exposed to systemic-to-pulmonary shunt. Cell culture assay demonstrated that distal pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) from rat lungs suffering from volume and pressure overload exhibited enhanced proliferation compared with those from healthy rats. Mechanical stretch (20% at 1 Hz) increased OPN expression and activated ERK1/2 and protein kinase B (Akt) signal pathway in distal PASMCs from healthy rats. Interestingly, OPN enhanced the proliferation and migration of PASMCs while blocking αVβ3-integrin with neutralizing antibody LM609 or Arg-Gly-Asp peptidomimetic antagonist cyclo(Ala-Arg-Gly-Asp-3-aminomethylbenzoyl) (XJ735), rectified the proliferative and migratory effects of OPN, which were partially mediated via ERK1/2 and Akt signaling pathways. Furthermore, surgical correction of systemic-to-pulmonary shunt, particularly XJ735 supplementation after surgical correction of systemic-to-pulmonary shunt, significantly alleviated the pulmonary hypertensive status in terms of pulmonary hemodynamic indices, pulmonary vasculopathy, and right ventricular hypertrophy. In summary, OPN alteration in lungs exposed to systemic-to-pulmonary shunt exerts a deteriorative role in pulmonary vascular remodeling through modulating the proliferation and migration of PASMCs, at least in part, via ανβ3-ERK1/2 and ανβ3-Akt signaling pathways. Antagonizing OPN receptor ανβ3-integrin accelerated the regression of pulmonary vasculopathy after surgical correction of systemic-to-pulmonary shunt, indicating a potential therapeutic strategy for patients with CHD/PAH.-Meng, L., Liu, X., Teng, X., Gu, H., Yuan, W., Meng, J., Li, J., Zheng, Z., Wei, Y., Hu, S. Osteopontin plays important roles in pulmonary arterial hypertension induced by systemic-to-pulmonary shunt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liukun Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- Medical Research Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypertension Research, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; and
| | - Xiao Teng
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Haiyong Gu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen Yuan
- Medical Research Center, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Zhe Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yingjie Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Shengshou Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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7
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Tanaka LY, Araujo TLS, Rodriguez AI, Ferraz MS, Pelegati VB, Morais MCC, Santos AMD, Cesar CL, Ramos AF, Alencar AM, Laurindo FRM. Peri/epicellular protein disulfide isomerase-A1 acts as an upstream organizer of cytoskeletal mechanoadaptation in vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2018; 316:H566-H579. [PMID: 30499716 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00379.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Although redox processes closely interplay with mechanoresponses to control vascular remodeling, redox pathways coupling mechanostimulation to cellular cytoskeletal organization remain unclear. The peri/epicellular pool of protein disulfide isomerase-A1 (pecPDIA1) supports postinjury vessel remodeling. Using distinct models, we investigated whether pecPDIA1 could work as a redox-dependent organizer of cytoskeletal mechanoresponses. In vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), pecPDIA1 immunoneutralization impaired stress fiber assembly in response to equibiaxial stretch and, under uniaxial stretch, significantly perturbed cell repositioning perpendicularly to stretch orientation. During cyclic stretch, pecPDIA1 supported thiol oxidation of the known mechanosensor β1-integrin and promoted polarized compartmentalization of sulfenylated proteins. Using traction force microscopy, we showed that pecPDIA1 organizes intracellular force distribution. The net contractile moment ratio of platelet-derived growth factor-exposed to basal VSMCs decreased from 0.90 ± 0.09 (IgG-exposed controls) to 0.70 ± 0.08 after pecPDI neutralization ( P < 0.05), together with an enhanced coefficient of variation for distribution of force modules, suggesting increased noise. Moreover, in a single cell model, pecPDIA1 neutralization impaired migration persistence without affecting total distance or velocity, whereas siRNA-mediated total PDIA1 silencing disabled all such variables of VSMC migration. Neither expression nor total activity of the master mechanotransmitter/regulator RhoA was affected by pecPDIA1 neutralization. However, cyclic stretch-induced focal distribution of membrane-bound RhoA was disrupted by pecPDI inhibition, which promoted a nonpolarized pattern of RhoA/caveolin-3 cluster colocalization. Accordingly, FRET biosensors showed that pecPDIA1 supports localized RhoA activity at cell protrusions versus perinuclear regions. Thus, pecPDI acts as a thiol redox-dependent organizer and noise reducer mechanism of cytoskeletal repositioning, oxidant generation, and localized RhoA activation during a variety of VSMC mechanoresponses. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Effects of a peri/epicellular pool of protein disulfide isomerase-A1 (pecPDIA1) during mechanoregulation in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) were highlighted using approaches such as equibiaxial and uniaxial stretch, random single cell migration, and traction force microscopy. pecPDIA1 regulates organization of the cytoskeleton and minimizes the noise of cell alignment, migration directionality, and persistence. pecPDIA1 mechanisms involve redox control of β1-integrin and localized RhoA activation. pecPDIA1 acts as a novel organizer of mechanoadaptation responses in VSMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Y Tanaka
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute, University of São Paulo School of Medicine , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Thaís L S Araujo
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute, University of São Paulo School of Medicine , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Andres I Rodriguez
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute, University of São Paulo School of Medicine , São Paulo , Brazil.,Group of Research and Innovation in Vascular Health, Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Bío-Bío , Chillán , Chile
| | - Mariana S Ferraz
- Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Vitor B Pelegati
- "Gleb Wataghin" Institute of Physics, University of Campinas , Campinas , Brazil
| | - Mauro C C Morais
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades e Núcleo de Estudos Interdisciplinares em Sistemas Complexos, Departamento de Radiologia e Oncologia e Centro de Pesquisa Translacional em Oncologia - Instituto do Cancer do Estado São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Aline M Dos Santos
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas , Campinas , Brazil
| | - Carlos L Cesar
- "Gleb Wataghin" Institute of Physics, University of Campinas , Campinas , Brazil
| | - Alexandre F Ramos
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades e Núcleo de Estudos Interdisciplinares em Sistemas Complexos, Departamento de Radiologia e Oncologia e Centro de Pesquisa Translacional em Oncologia - Instituto do Cancer do Estado São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | | | - Francisco R M Laurindo
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute, University of São Paulo School of Medicine , São Paulo , Brazil
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8
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Lee S, Ko J, Park D, Lee SR, Chung M, Lee Y, Jeon NL. Microfluidic-based vascularized microphysiological systems. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:2686-2709. [PMID: 30110034 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00285a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Microphysiological systems have emerged in the last decade to provide an alternative to in vivo models in basic science and pharmaceutical research. In the field of vascular biology, in particular, there has been a lack of a suitable in vitro model exhibiting a three-dimensional structure and the physiological function of vasculature integrated with organ-on-a-chip models. The rapid development of organ-on-a-chip technology is well positioned to fulfill unmet needs. Recently, functional integration of vasculature with diverse microphysiological systems has been increasing. This recent trend corresponds to emerging research interest in how the vascular system contributes to various physiological and pathological conditions. This innovative platform has undergone significant development, but adoption of this technology by end-users and researchers in biology is still a work in progress. Therefore, it is critical to focus on simplification and standardization to promote the distribution and acceptance of this technology by the end-users. In this review, we will introduce the latest developments in vascularized microphysiological systems and summarize their outlook in basic research and drug screening applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somin Lee
- Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
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9
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Rogers NM, Ghimire K, Calzada MJ, Isenberg JS. Matricellular protein thrombospondin-1 in pulmonary hypertension: multiple pathways to disease. Cardiovasc Res 2018; 113:858-868. [PMID: 28472457 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvx094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Matricellular proteins are secreted molecules that have affinities for both extracellular matrix and cell surface receptors. Through interaction with structural proteins and the cells that maintain the matrix these proteins can alter matrix strength. Matricellular proteins exert control on cell activity primarily through engagement of membrane receptors that mediate outside-in signaling. An example of this group is thrombospondin-1 (TSP1), first identified as a component of the secreted product of activated platelets. As a result, TSP1 was initially studied in relation to coagulation, growth factor signaling and angiogenesis. More recently, TSP1 has been found to alter the effects of the gaseous transmitter nitric oxide (NO). This latter capacity has provided motivation to study TSP1 in diseases associated with loss of NO signaling as observed in cardiovascular disease and pulmonary hypertension (PH). PH is characterized by progressive changes in the pulmonary vasculature leading to increased resistance to blood flow and subsequent right heart failure. Studies have linked TSP1 to pre-clinical animal models of PH and more recently to clinical PH. This review will provide analysis of the vascular and non-vascular effects of TSP1 that contribute to PH, the experimental and translational studies that support a role for TSP1 in disease promotion and frame the relevance of these findings to therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha M Rogers
- Medicine, Westmead Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2145, Australia
| | - Kedar Ghimire
- Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Maria J Calzada
- Department of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma of Madrid, Diego de León, Hospital Universitario of the Princesa, 62?28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jeffrey S Isenberg
- Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.,Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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10
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Urotensin II contributes to collagen synthesis and up-regulates Egr-1 expression in cultured pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells through the ERK1/2 pathway. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 467:1076-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.09.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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11
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Variability in vascular smooth muscle cell stretch-induced responses in 2D culture. Vasc Cell 2015; 7:7. [PMID: 26301087 PMCID: PMC4546126 DOI: 10.1186/s13221-015-0032-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The pulsatile nature of blood flow exposes vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in the vessel wall to mechanical stress, in the form of circumferential and longitudinal stretch. Cyclic stretch evokes VSMC proliferation, apoptosis, phenotypic switching, migration, alignment, and vascular remodeling. Given that these responses have been observed in many cardiovascular diseases, a defined understanding of their underlying mechanisms may provide critical insight into the pathophysiology of cardiovascular derangements. Cyclic stretch-triggered VSMC responses and their effector mechanisms have been studied in vitro using tension systems that apply either uniaxial or equibiaxial stretch to cells grown on an elastomer-bottomed culture plate and ex vivo by stretching whole vein segments with small weights. This review will focus mainly on VSMC responses to the in vitro application of mechanical stress, outlining the inconsistencies in acquired data, and comparing them to in vivo or ex vivo findings. Major discrepancies in data have been seen in mechanical stress-induced proliferation, apoptosis, and phenotypic switching responses, depending on the stretch conditions. These discrepancies stem from variations in stretch conditions such as degree, axis, duration, and frequency of stretch, wave function, membrane coating, cell type, cell passage number, culture media content, and choice of in vitro model. Further knowledge into the variables that cause these incongruities will allow for improvement of the in vitro application of cyclic stretch.
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12
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Mai J, Hu Q, Xie Y, Su S, Qiu Q, Yuan W, Yang Y, Song E, Chen Y, Wang J. Dyssynchronous Pacing Triggers Endothelial-Mesenchymal Transition Through Heterogeneity of Mechanical Stretch in a Canine Model. Circ J 2014; 79:201-9. [DOI: 10.1253/circj.cj-14-0721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- JingTing Mai
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology
- Department of Cardiology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - QingSong Hu
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology
- Department of Cardiology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - Yong Xie
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology
- Department of Cardiology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - ShiCheng Su
- Breast Tumor Center, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - Qiong Qiu
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology
- Department of Cardiology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - WoLiang Yuan
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology
- Department of Cardiology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - Ying Yang
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology
- Department of Cardiology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - ErWei Song
- Breast Tumor Center, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - YangXin Chen
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology
- Department of Cardiology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
| | - JingFeng Wang
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology
- Department of Cardiology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University
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13
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Li W, Kong QY, Zhao CF, Zhao F, Li FH, Xia W, Wang R, Hu YM, Hua M. Adrenomedullin and adrenotensin regulate collagen synthesis and proliferation in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells. Braz J Med Biol Res 2013; 46:1047-1055. [PMID: 24345914 PMCID: PMC3935277 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20132882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the pathophysiological mechanisms of pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell (PASMC) proliferation and extracellular-matrix accumulation in the development of pulmonary hypertension and remodeling, this study determined the effects of different doses of adrenomedullin (ADM) and adrenotensin (ADT) on PASMC proliferation and collagen synthesis. The objective was to investigate whether extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) signaling was involved in ADM- and ADT-stimulated proliferation of PASMCs in 4-week-old male Wistar rats (body weight: 100-150 g, n=10). The proliferation of PASMCs was examined by 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine incorporation. A cell growth curve was generated by the Cell Counting Kit-8 method. Expression of collagen I, collagen III, and phosphorylated ERK1/2 (p-ERK1/2) was evaluated by immunofluorescence. The effects of different concentrations of ADM and ADT on collagen I, collagen III, and p-ERK1/2 protein expression were determined by immunoblotting. We also investigated the effect of PD98059 inhibition on the expression of p-ERK1/2 protein by immunoblotting. ADM dose-dependently decreased cell proliferation, whereas ADT dose-dependently increased it; and ADM and ADT inhibited each other with respect to their effects on the proliferation of PASMCs. Consistent with these results, the expression of collagen I, collagen III, and p-ERK1/2 in rat PASMCs decreased after exposure to ADM but was upregulated after exposure to ADT. PD98059 significantly inhibited the downregulation by ADM and the upregulation by ADT of p-ERK1/2 expression. We conclude that ADM inhibited, and ADT stimulated, ERK1/2 signaling in rat PASMCs to regulate cell proliferation and collagen expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Li
- Shandong University, Biomedical Engineering Institute, School of Control Science and Engineering, JinanShandong, China
| | - Q Y Kong
- Shandong University, Qilu Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, JinanShandong, China
| | - C F Zhao
- Shandong University, Qilu Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, JinanShandong, China
| | - F Zhao
- Weill Medical College of Cornell University, Department of Medicine, New YorkNY, USA
| | - F H Li
- Shandong University, Qilu Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, JinanShandong, China
| | - W Xia
- Shandong University, Qilu Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, JinanShandong, China
| | - R Wang
- Shandong University, Qilu Hospital, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, JinanShandong, China
| | - Y M Hu
- Shandong University, Biomedical Engineering Institute, School of Control Science and Engineering, JinanShandong, China
| | - M Hua
- Shandong Institute of Scientific and Technical Information, JinanShandong, China
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14
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Qiu J, Zheng Y, Hu J, Liao D, Gregersen H, Deng X, Fan Y, Wang G. Biomechanical regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell functions: from in vitro to in vivo understanding. J R Soc Interface 2013; 11:20130852. [PMID: 24152813 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2013.0852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) have critical functions in vascular diseases. Haemodynamic factors are important regulators of VSMC functions in vascular pathophysiology. VSMCs are physiologically active in the three-dimensional matrix and interact with the shear stress sensor of endothelial cells (ECs). The purpose of this review is to illustrate how haemodynamic factors regulate VSMC functions under two-dimensional conditions in vitro or three-dimensional co-culture conditions in vivo. Recent advances show that high shear stress induces VSMC apoptosis through endothelial-released nitric oxide and low shear stress upregulates VSMC proliferation and migration through platelet-derived growth factor released by ECs. This differential regulation emphasizes the need to construct more actual environments for future research on vascular diseases (such as atherosclerosis and hypertension) and cardiovascular tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhui Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology (Chongqing University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing Engineering Laboratory in Vascular Implants, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, , Chongqing 400044, People's Republic of China
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15
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Effects of mechanical and chemical stimuli on differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells into endothelial cells. Int J Artif Organs 2013; 36:663-73. [PMID: 23918273 DOI: 10.5301/ijao.5000242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
It has been hypothesized that application of the micromechanical environment that target cells experience in vivo enhances functionality of differentiated cells. Vascular endothelial cells, functioning at the interface of the blood-vessel wall, are vital to the performance of the cardiovascular system. They are subject to shear and tensile stresses induced by blood flow and pressure, respectively. This study investigated effects of shear/tensile stresses on endothelial differentiation of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ASCs) utilizing a custom-made bioreactor capable of applying both shear and tensile stresses. The loading values of 10% cyclic stretch, 0-2.5 dyn/cm² cyclic shear stress, and combined loadings were used. To examine the extent of mechanical and chemical stimuli in acquisition of endothelial characteristics by ASCs, the expression of three major endothelial genes were quantified when ASCs were treated by three loading regimes and endothelial growth factor for three different durations (1, 2, and 7 days). In general, cyclic stretch decreased expression of FLK-1 and vWF, while cyclic shear elevated expression levels. The combined loading regime had minor effects on the expression of the two markers. All types of loadings significantly enhanced the expression level of VE-cadherin with the most prominent increase by combined loading. It was concluded that applying different loading regimes assists in adjusting the expression level of endothelial markers to achieve functional endothelial cells for cardiovascular engineering.
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16
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Maloney JP, Stearman RS, Bull TM, Calabrese DW, Tripp-Addison ML, Wick MJ, Broeckel U, Robbins IM, Wheeler LA, Cogan JD, Loyd JE. Loss-of-function thrombospondin-1 mutations in familial pulmonary hypertension. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2011; 302:L541-54. [PMID: 22198906 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00282.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Most patients with familial pulmonary arterial hypertension (FPAH) carry mutations in the bone morphogenic protein receptor 2 gene (BMPR2). Yet carriers have only a 20% risk of disease, suggesting that other factors influence penetrance. Thrombospondin-1 (TSP1) regulates activation of TGF-β and inhibits endothelial and smooth muscle cell proliferation, pathways coincidentally altered in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). To determine whether a subset of FPAH patients also have mutations in the TSP1 gene (THBS1) we resequenced the type I repeats of THBS1 encoding the TGF-β regulation and cell growth inhibition domains in 60 FPAH probands, 70 nonfamilial PAH subjects, and in large control groups. We identified THBS1 mutations in three families: a novel missense mutation in two (Asp362Asn), and an intronic mutation in a third (IVS8+255 G/A). Neither mutation was detected in population controls. Mutant 362Asn TSP1 had less than half of the ability of wild-type TSP1 to activate TGF-β. Mutant 362Asn TSP1 also lost the ability to inhibit growth of pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells and was over threefold less effective at inhibiting endothelial cell growth. The IVS8+255 G/A mutation decreased and/or eliminated local binding of the transcription factors SP1 and MAZ but did not affect RNA splicing. These novel mutations implicate THBS1 as a modifier gene in FPAH. These THBS1 mutations have implications in the genetic evaluation of FPAH patients. However, since FPAH is rare, these data are most relevant as evidence for the importance of TSP1 in pulmonary vascular homeostasis. Further examination of THBS1 in the pathogenesis of PAH is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P Maloney
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, 80045, USA.
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Ochoa CD, Fouty BW, Hales CA. Thrombospondin-1, endothelium and systemic vascular tone. Future Cardiol 2011; 7:169-72. [DOI: 10.2217/fca.11.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Evaluation of: Bauer EM, Qin Y, Miller TW et al.: Thrombospondin-1 supports blood pressure by limiting eNOS activation and endothelial dependent vasorelaxation. Cardiovasc. Res. 88, 471–481 (2010). Several lines of evidence, both in vivo and ex vivo, suggest that thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) is important in maintaining systemic vascular tone. Recently published papers demonstrate that TSP-1 can inhibit vascular smooth muscle relaxation by interfering with the interaction between nitric oxide (NO) and soluble guanylyl cyclase, providing a possible mechanism of action to explain this observation. While these in vitro experiments in vascular smooth muscle cells were provocative, it is not clear how such a large protein circulating in the plasma could cross the intact endothelial basal membrane and regulate NO/cGMP signaling in smooth muscle in vivo. This raised the question of whether TSP-1 could modulate NO/cGMP signaling through another mechanism. Herein, we evaluate a recently published paper by Bauer and colleagues that examined whether TSP-1 could exert vasoactive effects without directly accessing the vascular smooth muscle. In their studies they found that TSP-1 could inhibit the NO/cGMP signaling pathway through an alternate mechanism: inhibiting the activation of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS), and therefore NO production in endothelial cells. These findings, combined with previous results from these investigators, suggest that TSP-1 can blunt NO/cGMP signaling through two different mechanisms: inhibiting NO production in endothelial cells by preventing the agonist-induced influx of Ca2+ required to activate endothelial NO synthase and blunting the ability of endothelial-derived NO to activate soluble guanylyl cyclase in vascular smooth muscle cells. The importance of these two pathways in supporting systemic and pulmonary vascular tone in health and disease is unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brian W Fouty
- Department of Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
- Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
| | - Charles A Hales
- Pulmonary/Critical Care Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Ochoa CD, Yu L, Al-Ansari E, Hales CA, Quinn DA. Thrombospondin-1 null mice are resistant to hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. J Cardiothorac Surg 2010; 5:32. [PMID: 20441584 PMCID: PMC2877040 DOI: 10.1186/1749-8090-5-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2010] [Accepted: 05/04/2010] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Chronic hypoxia induces pulmonary hypertension in mice. Smooth muscle cell hyperplasia and medial thickening characterize the vasculature of these animals. Thrombospondin-1 null (TSP-1(-/-)) mice spontaneously develop pulmonary smooth muscle cell hyperplasia and medial thickening. In addition, TSP-1 produced by the pulmonary endothelium inhibits pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell growth. Based on these observations we sought to describe the pulmonary vascular changes in TSP-1(-/-) mice exposed to chronic hypoxia. METHODS We exposed TSP-1(-/-) and wild type (WT) mice to a fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) of 0.1 for up to six weeks. Pulmonary vascular remodeling was evaluated using tissue morphometrics. Additionally, right ventricle systolic pressures (RVSP) and right ventricular hypertrophy by right ventricle/left ventricle + septum ratios (RV/LV+S) were measured to evaluate pulmonary hypertensive changes. Finally, acute pulmonary vasoconstriction response in both TSP-1(-/-) and WT mice was evaluated by acute hypoxia and U-46619 (a prostaglandin F2 analog) response. RESULTS In hypoxia, TSP-1(-/-) mice had significantly lower RVSP, RV/LV+S ratios and less pulmonary vascular remodeling when compared to WT mice. TSP-1(-/-) mice also had significantly lower RVSP in response to acute pulmonary vasoconstriction challenges than their WT counterparts. CONCLUSION TSP-1(-/-) mice had diminished pulmonary vasoconstriction response and were less responsive to hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension than their wild type counterparts. This observation suggests that TSP-1 could play an active role in the pathogenesis of pulmonary hypertension associated with hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristhiaan D Ochoa
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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