Photophobia and abnormally sustained pupil responses in a mouse model of bradyopsia

Differential impact of Kv8.2 loss on rod and cone signaling and degeneration

Heteromeric Kv2.1/Kv8.2 channels are voltage-gated potassium channels localized to the photoreceptor inner segment. They carry IKx, which is largely responsible for setting the photoreceptor resting membrane potential. Mutations in Kv8.2 result in childhood-onset cone dystrophy with supernormal rod response (CDSRR). We generated a Kv8.2 knockout (KO) mouse and examined retinal signaling and photoreceptor degeneration to gain deeper insight into the complex phenotypes of this disease. Using electroretinograms, we show that there were delayed or reduced signaling from rods depending on the intensity of the light stimulus, consistent with reduced capacity for light-evoked changes in membrane potential. The delayed response was not seen ex vivo where extracellular potassium levels were controlled by the perfusion buffer, so we propose the in vivo alteration is influenced by genotype-associated ionic imbalance. We observed mild retinal degeneration. Signaling from cones was reduced but there was no loss of cone density. Loss of Kv8.2 altered responses to flickering light with responses attenuated at high frequencies and altered in shape at low frequencies. The Kv8.2 KO line on an all-cone retina background had reduced cone-driven ERG b wave amplitudes and underwent degeneration. Altogether, we provide insight into how a deficit in the dark current affects the health and function of photoreceptors.

Investigating Migraine-Like Behavior using Light Aversion in Mice

Migraine is a complex neurological disorder characterized by headache and sensory abnormalities, such as hypersensitivity to light, observed as photophobia. Whilst it is impossible to confirm that a mouse is experiencing migraine, light aversion can be used as a behavioral surrogate for the migraine symptom of photophobia. To test for light aversion, we utilize the light/dark assay to measure the time mice freely choose to spend in either a light or dark environment. The assay has been refined by introducing two critical modifications: pre-exposures to the chamber prior to running the test procedure and adjustable chamber lighting, permitting the use of a range of light intensities from 55 lux to 27,000 lux. Because the choice to spend more time in the dark is also indicative of anxiety, we also utilize a light-independent anxiety test, the open field assay, to distinguish anxiety from light-aversive behavior. Here, we describe a modified test paradigm for the light/dark and open field assays. The application of these assays is described for intraperitoneal injection of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in two mouse strains and for optogenetic brain stimulation studies.

Pupillary reflex and behavioral masking responses to light as functional measures of retinal degeneration in mice

BACKGROUND

Pre-clinical testing of retinal pathology and treatment efficacy depends on reliable and valid measures of retinal function. The electroretinogram (ERG) and tests of visual acuity are the ideal standard, but can be unmeasurable while useful vision remains. Non-image-forming responses to light such as the pupillary light reflex (PLR) are attractive surrogates. However, it is not clear how accurately such responses reflect changes in visual capability in specific disease models. The purpose of this study was to test whether measures of non-visual responses to light correlate with previously determined visual function in two photoreceptor degenerations.

METHODS

The sensitivity of masking behavior (light induced changes in running wheel activity) and the PLR were measured in 3-month-old wild-type mice (WT) with intact inner retinal circuitry, Pde6b-rd1/rd1 mice (rd1) with early and rapid loss of rods and cones, and Prph2-Rd2/Rd2 mice (Rd2) with a slower progressive loss of rods and cones.

RESULTS

In rd1 mice, negative masking had increased sensitivity, positive masking was absent, and the sensitivity of the PLR was severely reduced. In Rd2 mice, positive masking identified useful vision at higher light levels, but there was a limited decrease in the irradiance sensitivity of negative masking and the PLR, and the amplitude of change for both underestimated the reduction in irradiance sensitivity of image-forming vision.

CONCLUSIONS

Together these data show that in a given disease, two responses to light can be affected in opposite ways, and that for a given response to light, the change in the response does not accurately represent the degree of pathology. However, the extent of the deficit in the PLR means that even a limited rescue of rod/cone function might be measured by increased PLR amplitude. In addition, positive masking has the potential to measure effective treatment in both models by restoring responses or shifting thresholds to lower irradiances.

Stimulation of Posterior Thalamic Nuclei Induces Photophobic Behavior in Mice

OBJECTIVE

A hallmark of migraine is photophobia. In mice, photophobia-like behavior is induced by calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), a neuropeptide known to be a key player in migraine. In this study, we sought to identify sites within the brain from which CGRP could induce photophobia.

DESIGN

We focused on the posterior thalamic region, which contains neurons responsive to both light and dural stimulation and has CGRP binding sites. We probed this area with both optogenetic stimulation and acute CGRP injections in wild-type mice. Since the light/dark assay has historically been used to investigate anxiety-like responses in animals, we measured anxiety in a light-independent open field assay and asked if stimulation of a brain region, the periaqueductal gray, that induces anxiety would yield similar results to posterior thalamic stimulation. The hippocampus was used as an anatomical control to ensure that light-aversive behaviors could not be induced by the stimulation of any brain region.

RESULTS

Optogenetic activation of neuronal cell bodies in the posterior thalamic nuclei elicited light aversion in both bright and dim light without an anxiety-like response in an open field assay. Injection of CGRP into the posterior thalamic region triggered similar light-aversive behavior without anxiety. In contrast to the posterior thalamic nuclei, optogenetic stimulation of dorsal periaqueductal gray cell bodies caused both light aversion and an anxiety-like response, while CGRP injection had no effect. In the dorsal hippocampus, neither optical stimulation nor CGRP injection affected light aversion or open field behaviors.

CONCLUSION

Stimulation of posterior thalamic nuclei is able to initiate light-aversive signals in mice that may be modulated by CGRP to cause photophobia in migraine.

The Efemp1R345W Macular Dystrophy Mutation Causes Amplified Circadian and Photophobic Responses to Light in Mice

Purpose

The R345W mutation in EFEMP1 causes malattia leventinese, an autosomal dominant eye disease with pathogenesis similar to an early-onset age-related macular degeneration. In mice, Efemp1^R345W does not cause detectable degeneration but small subretinal deposits do accumulate. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there were abnormal responses to light at this presymptomatic stage in Efemp1^R345W mice.

Methods

Responses to light were assessed by visual water task, circadian phase shifting, and negative masking behavior. The mechanism of abnormal responses was investigated by anterior eye exam, electroretinogram, melanopsin cell quantification, and multielectrode recording of retinal ganglion cell activity.

Results

Visual acuity was not different in Efemp1^R345W mice. However, amplitudes of circadian phase shifting (P = 0.016) and negative masking (P < 0.0001) were increased in Efemp1^R345W mice. This phenotype was not explained by anterior eye defects or amplified outer retina responses. Instead, we identified increased melanopsin-generated responses to light in the ganglion cell layer of the retina (P < 0.01).

Conclusions

Efemp1^R345W increases the sensitivity to light of behavioral responses driven by detection of irradiance. An amplified response to light in melanopsin-expressing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) is consistent with this phenotype. The major concern with this effect of the malattia leventinese mutation is the potential for abnormal regulation of physiology by light to negatively affect health.

Determination of Rod and Cone Influence to the Early and Late Dynamic of the Pupillary Light Response

PURPOSE

This study aims to identify which aspects of the pupil light reflex are most influenced by rods and cones independently by analyzing pupil recordings from different mouse models of photoreceptor deficiency.

METHODS

One-month-old wild type (WT), rodless (Rho-/-), coneless (Cnga3-/-), or photoreceptor less (Cnga3-/-; Rho-/- or Gnat1-/-) mice were subjected to brief red and blue light stimuli of increasing intensity. To describe the initial dynamic response to light, the maximal pupillary constriction amplitudes and the derivative curve of the first 3 seconds were determined. To estimate the postillumination phase, the constriction amplitude at 9.5 seconds after light termination was related to the maximal constriction amplitude.

RESULTS

Rho-/- mice showed decreased constriction amplitude but more prolonged pupilloconstriction to all blue and red light stimuli compared to wild type mice. Cnga3-/- mice had constriction amplitudes similar to WT however following maximal constriction, the early and rapid dilation to low intensity blue light was decreased. To high intensity blue light, the Cnga3-/- mice demonstrated marked prolongation of the pupillary constriction. Cnga3-/-; Rho-/- mice had no pupil response to red light of low and medium intensity.

CONCLUSIONS

From specific gene defective mouse models which selectively voided the rod or cone function, we determined that mouse rod photoreceptors are highly contributing to the pupil response to blue light stimuli but also to low and medium red stimuli. We also observed that cone cells mainly drive the partial rapid dilation of the initial response to low blue light stimuli. Thus photoreceptor dysfunction can be derived from chromatic pupillometry in mouse models.

A system to measure the pupil response to steady lights in freely behaving mice

BACKGROUND

Transgenic mice are widely used for the study of basic visual function and retinal disease, including in psychophysical tests. Mice have a robust pupillary light reflex that controls the amount of light that enters the eye, and the attenuating effects of the pupil must be considered during such tests. Measurement of the size of pupils at various luminance levels requires that mice remain stable over prolonged periods of time; however, sedation of mice with anesthesia and/or manual restraint can influence the size of their pupils.

NEW METHOD

We present a system to measure the pupillary light response to steady lights of freely behaving mice using a custom-built, portable device that automatically acquires close-up images of their eyes. The device takes advantage of the intrinsic nature of mice to inspect objects of interest and can be used to measure pupillary responses in optomotor or operant behavior testing chambers.

RESULTS

The size of the pupils in freely behaving mice decreased gradually with luminance from a maximal area in the dark of 3.8mm² down to a minimum 0.14mm² at 80 scotopic cd/m². The data was well fit with a Hill equation with Lo equal to 0.21cd/m² and coefficient h=0.48.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

These values agree with prior measurements of the pupillary response of unrestrained mice that use more laborious and time consuming approaches.

CONCLUSIONS

Our new method facilitates practical, straightforward and accurate measurements of pupillary responses made under the same experimental conditions as those used during psychophysical testing.

Light aversion and corneal mechanical sensitivity are altered by intrinscally photosensitive retinal ganglion cells in a mouse model of corneal surface damage

Animal models of corneal surface damage reliably exhibit altered tear quality and quantity, apoptosis, nerve degeneration, immune responses and many other symptoms of dry eye disease. An important clinical symptom of dry eye disease is photoallodynia (photophobia), which can be modeled in mice using behavioral light aversion as a surrogate. Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) function as irradiance detectors. They have been shown to mediate innate light aversion and are ideal candidates to initiate or modulate light aversion in disease or dysfunctional states. This study addresses the relationship between light aversion, corneal mechanical sensitivity and corneal surface damage in a preclinical mouse model using bilateral topical application of benzalkonium chloride (BAC). Corneal application of BAC resulted in similar levels of corneal surface damage by fluorescein staining in both wild type mice and mice lacking ipRGCs. Light aversion was an early symptom of corneal surface damage, was proportional to the level of corneal damage and dependent on melanopsin-expressing cells. A decrease in both corneal mechanosensitivity and light aversion was observed in mice lacking melanopsin-expressing cells, suggesting a connection in the neural circuits mediating the two most common symptoms of corneal surface damage.