Accommodative performance of children with unilateral amblyopia

Randomised trial of three treatments for amblyopia: Vision therapy and patching, perceptual learning and patching alone

BACKGROUND

Active vision therapy for amblyopia shows good results, but there is no standard vision therapy protocol. This study compared the results of three treatments, two combining patching with active therapy and one with patching alone, in a sample of children with amblyopia.

METHODS

Two protocols have been developed: (a) perceptual learning with a computer game designed to favour the medium-to-high spatial frequency-tuned achromatic mechanisms of parvocellular origin and (b) vision therapy with a specific protocol and 2-h patching. The third treatment group used patching only. Fifty-two amblyopic children (aged 4-12 years), were randomly assigned to three monocular treatment groups: 2-h patching (n = 18), monocular perceptual learning (n = 17) and 2-h patching plus vision therapy (n = 17). Visual outcomes were analysed after 3 months and compared with a control group (n = 36) of subjects with normal vision.

RESULTS

Visual acuity (VA) and stereoacuity (STA) improved significantly after treatment for the three groups with the best results for patching plus vision therapy, followed by monocular perceptual learning, with patching only least effective. Change in the interocular difference in VA was significant for monocular perceptual learning, followed by patching. Differences in STA between groups were not significant. For VA and interocular differences, the final outcomes were influenced by the baseline VA and interocular difference, respectively, with greater improvements in subjects with poorer initial values.

CONCLUSIONS

Visual acuity and STA improved with the two most active treatments, that is, vision therapy followed by perceptual learning. Patching alone showed the worst outcome. These results suggest that vision therapy should include monocular accommodative exercises, ocular motility and central fixation exercises where the fovea is more active.

Retinoscopes: Past and present

BACKGROUND

Retinoscopy is arguably the most important method in the eye clinic for diagnosing and managing refractive errors. Advantages of retinoscopy include its non-invasive nature, ability to assess patients of all ages, and usefulness in patients with limited cooperation or communication skills.

AIM

To discuss the history of retinoscopes and examine current literature on the subject.

METHODS

A search was conducted on the PubMed and with the reference citation analysis (https://www.referencecitationanalysis.com) database using the term "Retinoscopy," with a range restricted to the last 10 years (2013-2023). The search string algorithm was: "Retinoscopy" (MeSH Terms) OR "Retinoscopy" (All Fields) OR "Retinoscopes" (All Fields) AND [(All Fields) AND 2013: 2023 (pdat)].

RESULTS

This systematic review included a total of 286 records. Publications reviewed iterations of the retinoscope into autorefractors, infrared photo retinoscope, television retinoscopy, and the Wifi enabled digital retinoscope.

CONCLUSION

The retinoscope has evolved significantly since its discovery, with a significant improvement in its diagnostic capabilities. While it has advantages such as non-invasiveness and broad applicability, limitations exist, and the need for skilled interpretation remains. With ongoing research, including the integration of artificial intelligence, retinoscopy is expected to continue advancing and playing a vital role in eye care.

Leveraging neural plasticity for the treatment of amblyopia

Amblyopia is a form of visual cortical impairment that arises from abnormal visual experience early in life. Most often, amblyopia is a unilateral visual impairment that can develop as a result of strabismus, anisometropia, or a combination of these conditions that result in discordant binocular experience. Characterized by reduced visual acuity and impaired binocular function, amblyopia places a substantial burden on the developing child. Although frontline treatment with glasses and patching can improve visual acuity, residual amblyopia remains for most children. Newer binocular-based therapies can elicit rapid recovery of visual acuity and may also improve stereoacuity in some children. Nevertheless, for both treatment modalities full recovery is elusive, recurrence of amblyopia is common, and improvements are negligible when treatment is administered at older ages. Insights derived from animal models about the factors that govern neural plasticity have been leveraged to develop innovative treatments for amblyopia. These novel therapies exhibit efficacy to promote recovery, and some are effective even at ages when conventional treatments fail to yield benefit. Approaches for enhancing visual system plasticity and promoting recovery from amblyopia include altering the balance between excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms, reversing the accumulation of proteins that inhibit plasticity, and harnessing the principles of metaplasticity. Although these therapies have exhibited promising results in animal models, their safety and ability to remediate amblyopia need to be evaluated in humans.

Rehabilitation of amblyopia using a digital platform for visual training combined with patching in children: a prospective study

PURPOSE

To assess the possible benefits of the use of perceptual learning and dichoptic therapy combined with patching in children with amblyopia over the use of only patching.

METHODS

Quasi-experimental multicentric study including 52 amblyopic children. Patients who improved their visual acuity (VA) by combining spectacles and patching were included in patching group (PG: 20 subjects), whereas those that did not improved with patching performed visual training (perceptual learning + dichoptic therapy) combined with patching, being assigned to the visual treatment group (VT: 32 subjects). Changes in VA, contrast sensitivity (CS), and stereopsis were monitored during a 6-month follow-up in each group.

RESULTS

Significant improvements in VA were found in both groups at 1 month (p < 0.01). The total improvement of VA was 0.18 ± 0.16 and 0.31 ± 0.35 logMAR in PG and VT groups, respectively (p = 0.317). The Wilcoxon effect size was slightly higher in VT (0.48 vs. 0.54) at 6 months. An enhancement in CS was observed in the amblyopic eye of the VT group for all spatial frequencies at 1 month (p < 0.001). Likewise, the binocular function score also increased significantly in VT group (p = 0.002). A prediction equation of VA improvement at 1 month in VT group was obtained by multiple linear regression analysis (p < 0.001, R2 = 0.747).

CONCLUSIONS

A combined treatment of visual training and patching is effective for obtaining a predictable improvement of VA, CS, and binocularity in patching-resistant amblyopic children.

Fine visuomotor skills in amblyopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Amblyopia is characterised by reduced visual acuity, poor binocular sensory fusion, and impaired or absent stereoacuity. Understanding the extent to which amblyopia affects everyday task performance is important to quantifying the disease burden of amblyopia and can assist clinicians to understand patients' likely functional capability.

METHODS

A systematic literature search identified published studies comparing fine visuomotor performance in either children or adults with amblyopia and those with normal binocular vision. The included studies (22 studies involving 835 amblyopes and 561 controls) reported results of self-perception patient reported outcome measures, tests of motor proficiency and video recorded reaching and grasping. The outcomes of 17 studies were grouped into four meta-analyses, with pooled results reported as standardised mean difference (SMD) with corresponding 95% CI.

RESULTS

Regardless of the cause of amblyopia (anisometropia, strabismus, mixed, deprivation), significant reduction in self-perception of physical competence and athletic competence (SMD=-0.74, 95% CI -1.23 to -0.25, p=0.003); fine motor skills scores (SMD=-0.86, 95% CI -1.27 to -0.45, p<0.0001); speed of visually guided reaching and grasping movements (SMD=0.86, 95% CI 0.65 to 1.08, p<0.00001); and precision of temporal eye-hand coordination (SMD=0.75, 95% CI 0.26 to 1.25, p=0.003) occurred in amblyopes compared with those with normal visual development.

CONCLUSION

Reports of the impact of amblyopia on fine motor skills performance find poorer outcomes in participants with amblyopia compared with those with normal vision development. Consistency in the outcome measure used to assess the functional impact of amblyopia would be valuable for future studies.

Amblyopia and the whole child

Amblyopia is a disorder of neurodevelopment that occurs when there is discordant binocular visual experience during the first years of life. While treatments are effective in improving visual acuity, there are significant individual differences in response to treatment that cannot be attributed solely to difference in adherence. In this considerable variability in response to treatment, we argue that treatment outcomes might be optimized by utilizing deep phenotyping of amblyopic deficits to guide alternative treatment choices. In addition, an understanding of the broader knock-on effects of amblyopia on developing visually-guided skills, self-perception, and quality of life will facilitate a whole person healthcare approach to amblyopia.

[Changes in accommodation in children with hyperopic anisometropia and unilateral amblyopia after laser refractive surgery and pleoptic treatment]

PURPOSE

This study comparatively analyzes the state of accommodation in children with hyperopic anisometropia and amblyopia after femtosecond laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (Femto-LASIK) combined with pleoptic treatment, and after conventional pleoptic treatment.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The first group consisted of 30 children with medium and high hyperopia, high and medium amblyopia, and anisometropia greater than 3.0 diopters, who underwent Femto-LASIK in the amblyopic eye. The second group consisted of 28 children with similar local status, who were prescribed traditional correction and received conservative treatment. The follow-up period was 1.5 years.

RESULTS

After 1.5 years, higher visual acuity (p<0.05) was achieved in the first group. A significant increase in the coefficient of accommodative response (CAR) was observed in the operated amblyopic eyes in group 1 - by 0.1±0.02 c.u. compared to the control group (p<0.05). In both groups there was an upwards trend for the coefficient of microfluctuations (CMF) in the amblyopic eye, but in the first group CMF increased more significantly (p<0.05). The objective accommodative response (OAR) and positive relative accommodation (PRA) of the amblyopic eye showed a double increase - by 1.0±0.23 and 0.9±0.38 diopters, respectively, at the end of treatment in the first group. The increase in similar indicators in the second group was insignificant (p<0.05). In children of the first group the difference in ciliary muscle thickness (CMT) of the amblyopic eye with disabled and enabled accommodation increased by 0.04±0.01 mm (p<0.05) in the anterior part of the ciliary muscle at the levels of CMTmax and CMT1.

CONCLUSION

The data obtained in this study indicate the strong effect of refractive laser surgery in combination with pleoptic treatment on improving the visual acuity and the state of accommodation of the amblyopic and paired dominant eyes in children with hyperopic anisometropia, in contrast to conventional methods of treatment.

Evaluation of Choroidal Vascular Structure in Hyperopic Anisometropic Amblyopia

Objectives

The aim of the study was to investigate the choroidal structure of patients with anisohypermetropic amblyopia compared to that of healthy eyes in controls of the same age.

Methods

The study comprises three groups: One group was the amblyopic eyes of patients with anisometropic hypermetropia (AE group), another group was the fellow eyes of patients with anisometropic hypermetropia (FE group), and a final group of healthy controls. Both the choroidal thickness (CT) and choroidal vascularity index (CVI) values were obtained using the spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) method of improved depth imaging (EDI-OCT; Heidelberg Engineering GmbH, Spectralis, Germany, Heidelberg).

Results

This study included 28 anisometropic amblyopic patients (AE and FE groups) and 35 healthy controls. Regarding the distribution of ages and sexes (p=0.813 and p=0.745), the groups were the same. The mean best-corrected visual acuity in AE, FE, and the control group was 0.58±0.76, 0.008±1.30, and 0.004±1.20 logMAR units, respectively. There was a significant difference in terms of CVI, luminal area (LA), and all the CT values between groups. Post hoc univariate analyses indicated that CVI and LA were significantly higher in AE compared to FE and the control group (p<0.05, for each). The temporal, nasal, and subfoveal CT values were considerably higher in AE compared to FE and the control groups (p<0.05, for each). However, there was no difference between FE and the control group (p>0.05, for each).

Conclusion

The AE group had larger LA, CVI, and CT values compared to the FE and control groups. These results show that choroidal changes in amblyopic eyes in children are permanent in adulthood if untreated and are involved in the pathogenesis of amblyopia.

Accommodative Lag Persistence in Treated Anisometropic, Strabismic, and Mixed Amblyopia

Background

Amblyopic eyes typically exhibit greater lag of accommodation. Whether this improves after amblyopia treatment is inconclusive. The aim of this study is to report post-treatment accommodative response in amblyopia and to investigate if the lag is associated with visual acuity, treatment duration, and amblyopia type.

Methods

Monocular and binocular accommodative responses were measured using Nott's method of dynamic retinoscopy in amblyopia of anisometropic, strabismic, and combined anisometropic-strabismic types and age-matched controls with normal vision. The results were compared using the nonparametric Wilcoxon signed ranks test. Linear regression analysis was used to examine association of the lag to refractive error, duration of therapy, and visual acuity.

Results

Mean ± SD age of 46 amblyopic and 20 control subjects were 6.9 ± 1.8 and 6.9 ± 2.2 years, respectively. At the time of the study, 30 amblyopic subjects were receiving patching therapy and ceased in the remainder. In amblyopic eyes, mean ± SD monocular and binocular lags were 1.2 ± 0.6D and 1.0 ± 0.5D (p < 0.001), respectively, compared to 0.6 ± 0.3D and 0.5 ± 0.2D (p < 0.005), respectively, in nonamblyopic eyes and 0.4 ± 0.2D and 0.3 ± 0.2D (p=0.093), respectively, in the controls. By types, the monocular lag was significantly higher than the binocular lag (p=0.001) in mixed amblyopia (p=0.004); they were similar in anisometropic (p=0.283) and strabismic (p=0.743) amblyopia. Monocular lag was significantly correlated to BCVA (r = 0.46; p=0.001) and refraction (r = 0.42; p=0.001) but not to patching duration (r = 0.1; p=0.280).

Conclusion

Inadequate accommodative response, a higher lag, persists in amblyopic eyes even after the treatment. Impaired accommodative response is partly determined by posttherapy visual acuity. Further studies investigating the effect of accommodative lag on visual recovery and whether optical correction of the deficiency may improve visual outcome of the treatment are recommended.

Repeatability of the Accommodative Response Measured by the Grand Seiko Autorefractor in Children With and Without Amblyopia and Adults

PURPOSE

To assess test-retest repeatability of the accommodative response (AR) in children with and without amblyopia and adults using the Grand Seiko autorefractor.

DESIGN

Prospective reliability assessment.

METHODS

Test-retest of accommodation was obtained while participants viewed 20/150 sized letters at 33 cm using the Grand Seiko autorefractor in children 5 to <11 years with amblyopia (n=24) and without amblyopia (n=36), and adults 18 to <35 years (n=34). Bland-Altman 95% limits of agreement (LOA) and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were used to assess repeatability and reliability. The AR between the fellow and amblyopic eyes of children with amblyopia and eye 1 and eye 2 of the visually normal participants was assessed using group comparisons.

RESULTS

The 95% LOA of the AR was greatest in the amblyopic eyes (-1.25 diopters [D], 1.62 D) of children with amblyopia. The 95% LOA were similar between the fellow eyes (-0.88 D, 0.74 D) of children with amblyopia and both eyes of the children without amblyopia (eye 1: -0.68 D, 0.71 D; eye 2: -0.59 D, 0.70 D) and the adults (eye 1: 95% LOA = -0.49 D, 0.45 D; eye 2: LOA = -0.66 D, 0.67 D). ICCs revealed the Grand Seiko autorefractor as a reliable instrument for measuring AR.

CONCLUSIONS

The Grand Seiko autorefractor was more repeatable and reliable when measuring the AR in children and adults without amblyopia than in the amblyopic eye in children with amblyopia. It is recommended that multiple measures of the AR be obtained in amblyopic eyes to improve the precision of measures.

Efficacy of vision therapy for unilateral refractive amblyopia in children aged 7-10 years

Background

There is a critical period for visual development, conventionally considered to be the first 6 years of life. Children aged 7 years and older are significantly less responsive to amblyopia treatment. This study investigated the efficacy of binocular vision therapy in amblyopic children aged 7–10 years.

Methods

This retrospective study enrolled 36 children with unilateral amblyopia who were divided into a case group (receiving vision therapy, optical correction, and part-time patching of the weaker eye) and a control group (receiving optical correction and part-time patching of the weaker eye). Visual acuity (VA) was measured at baseline, at the 3-month, 6-month, and 9-month visits, and 3 months after cessation of treatment.

Results

There were 19 subjects in the case group and 17 subjects in the control group. Mean VA in the case group improved from 0.39 ± 0.24 logMAR at baseline to 0.10 ± 0.23 logMAR at the endpoint of treatment (p < 0.001, paired t-test). Mean VA in the control group improved from 0.64 ± 0.30 logMAR at baseline to 0.52 ± 0.27 logMAR at the endpoint of treatment (p = 0.015, paired t-test). The improvement was significantly greater in the case group than in the control group (p = 0.006, two-samples independent t-test). All subjects underwent follow-up examinations within 6 to 12 months. There was no regression of VA in the case group 3 months after cessation of vision therapy. The patients in the case group who received visual therapy were with better VA improvement then patients with only optic correction and patching.

Conclusions

Vision therapy combined with conventional treatment (optical correction and part-time patching) is more effective than conventional treatment alone in children aged 7–10 years with unilateral refractive amblyopia. The treatment results not only in greater vision gain, but also in shorter duration of treatment.

Effect of Cycloplegia on Refractive Error Measure in Chinese School Students

PURPOSE

To determine differences in cycloplegic vs. non-cycloplegic refractive error and factors associated with these differences in Chinese school students.

METHOD

In this cross-sectional school-based study, refractive error was measured in school students using a NIDEK autorefractor before and after administration of 0.5% tropicamide. Spherical equivalent (SER) in diopters (D) was calculated as sphere plus half cylinder. SER differences before vs. after cycloplegia were evaluated using mean, standard deviation (SD), 95% limits of agreement. Univariable and multivariable regression models were used to determine factors associated with SER differences.

RESULTS

Among 3604 students, 3450 (95.7%) provided data for analysis. Mean age (SD) was 9.7 (3.6) years. The mean SER (SD) was -1.12 (1.97) D before cycloplegia, and -0.20 (2.19) D after cycloplegia, with a mean difference of 0.92 D (95% limits of agreement: -0.93 to 2.78 D). Among 196 eyes with non-cycloplegic SER -6.0 D or worse (e.g., met high myopia definition), 71.4% had cycloplegic SER -6.0 D or worse, and among 3607 eyes with non-cycloplegic SER -0.5 D or worse (e.g., met myopia definition), 62.1% eyes had cycloplegic SER -0.5 D or worse. Cycloplegic SER was more correlated with axial length than non-cycloplegic SER (Pearson r = 0.82 vs. 0.72, p < .0001). In multivariable analysis, larger SER differences were associated with more hyperopic refractive error and smaller axial length (all p < .0001).

CONCLUSION

Non-cycloplegic refractive error overestimates myopia by approximately one diopter. This overestimation increases with more hyperopic refractive error and smaller axial length. Non-cycloplegic refractive error should not be used for evaluating pediatric myopia.

ABBREVIATIONS

BCVA = best corrected visual acuity; D = diopter; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error; SER = spherical equivalent; CI = confidence interval.

Accommodative Response in Patients with Central Field Loss: A Matched Case-Control Study

Purpose: This study was conducted to evaluate the accommodative response in young participants with visual impairment in comparison with visually normal participants. Methods: Fifteen participants with confirmed visual impairment and 30 visually normal participants aged 12–15 years were recruited. Accommodative response was measured using autorefractor (Grand Seiko WV500) at distances of accommodative demand of 33, 25, and 20 cm. The targets were one-line-above participant threshold acuity. The participants’ accommodative responses were compared between both groups after calibration for refractive errors and the vertex distance of the glasses. Visual acuity and refractive status were also assessed. Results: The age was not significantly different between both participant groups. The visual acuity of visually impaired patients was 6/30 to 6/240, and that of visually normal participants was 6/7.5 or better. Ten of the visually impaired patients and 29 of visually normal participants were myopic. In total, 61–73% of visually impaired patients showed an accommodative lead. Five subtypes of accommodative response were observed. In general, the accommodative inaccuracy increased with increasing accommodative demand. However, the visually normal participants largely exhibited an accommodative lag. A mild-to-moderate relationship was observed between visual acuity and accommodative response (r = 0.3–0.5, p < 0.05). Conclusion: Accommodative response in young visually impaired patients can be variable and on an individual basis. Low vision specialists should anticipate accommodative response outside the normal range. Therefore, we shall consider evaluating each patient’s accommodative response before prescribing any near addition lenses. Accommodation inaccuracy is often more complex than predicted due to increased depth of focus caused by reduced visual acuity.

Prediction of cycloplegic refraction for noninvasive screening of children for refractive error

Detection of refractive error in children is crucial to avoid amblyopia and its impact on quality of life. We here performed a retrospective study in order to develop prediction models for spherical and cylinder refraction in children. The enrolled 1221 eyes of 617 children were divided into three groups: the development group (710 eyes of 359 children), the validation group (385 eyes of 194 children), and the comparison group (126 eyes of 64 children). We determined noncycloplegic and cycloplegic refraction values by autorefractometry. In addition, several noncycloplegic parameters were assessed with the use of ocular biometry. On the basis of the information obtained from the development group, we developed prediction models for cycloplegic spherical and cylinder refraction in children with the use of stepwise multiple regression analysis. The prediction formulas were validated by their application to the validation group. The similarity of noncycloplegic and predicted refraction to cycloplegic refraction in individual eyes was evaluated in the comparison group. Application of the developed prediction models for spherical and cylinder refraction to the validation group revealed that predicted refraction was significantly correlated with measured values for cycloplegic spherical refraction (R = 0.961, P < 0.001) or cylinder refraction (R = 0.894, P < 0.001). Comparison of noncycloplegic, cycloplegic, and predicted refraction in the comparison group revealed that cycloplegic spherical refraction did not differ significantly from predicted refraction but was significantly different from noncycloplegic refraction, whereas cycloplegic cylinder refraction did not differ significantly from predicted or noncycloplegic values. Our prediction models based on ocular biometry provide estimates of refraction in children similar to measured cycloplegic spherical and cylinder refraction values without the application of cycloplegic eyedrops.

A Comparative Study of Corneal Topography in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study

Purpose: To investigate the corneal characteristics in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and age-matched typical development (TD) participants. Methods: This cross-sectional, clinically based study compared children with ASD to age-matched TD participants. Corneal topography was measured with a portable EyeSys Vista system. The distance visual acuity (VA) and the contrast sensitivity (CS) were determined. The refractive error (RE) was assessed using a 2WIN autorefractometer. Results: A total of 31 children with ASD (mean age: 12.78 ± 4.49 years), and 60 participants with TD (mean age: 13.65 ± 3.56 years) were recruited. The two groups were similar in age (t = −2.084, p = 0.075) and VA (t = −0.35, p = 0.32). Most of the children with ASD had a significant amount of refractive errors (REs; range: +5.25 to −5.50 DS), and astigmatism was dominant (range: −0.25 to −4.50 DC). There was no statistically significant difference between both groups in terms of average corneal power (t = 1.12, p = 0.39). The children with ASD and participants with TD also did not differ significantly in terms of corneal shape descriptors (p > 0.05), such as corneal asphericity, inferior superior index, opposite sector index, and differential sector index. The spherical equivalent did not differ significantly between the ASD participants and participants with TD (t = 1.15, p = 0.15). There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the astigmatism component between the ASD participants and the participants with TD.

Choroidal vessel density in unilateral hyperopic amblyopia using en-face optical coherence tomography

Background

Structural changes of the choroid, such as choroidal thickening, have been indicated in amblyopic eyes with hyperopic anisometropia as compared to fellow or healthy eyes. The purpose of the present study was to investigate choroidal vascular density (CVD) in children with unilateral hyperopic amblyopia.

Methods

This study included 88 eyes of 44 patients with unilateral amblyopia due to hyperopic anisometropia with or without strabismus and 29 eyes of 29 age-matched normal controls. The CVD of Haller’s layer was quantified from en-face images constructed by 3-dimensional swept-source optical coherence tomography images flattened relative to Bruch’s membrane. The analysis area was a 3 × 3-mm square of macula after magnification correction. Relationships between CVD and other parameters [best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), refractive error and subfoveal choroidal thickness (SFCT)] were investigated, and CVDs were compared between amblyopic, fellow, and normal control eyes.

Results

Mean CVD was 59.11 ± 0.66% in amblyopic eyes, 59.23 ± 0.81% in fellow eyes, and 59.29 ± 0.74% in normal control eyes. CVD showed a significant positive relationship with SFCT (p = 0.004), but no relationships with other parameters. No significant differences in CVD were evident among amblyopic, fellow, and normal control eyes after adjusting for SFCT (p = 0.502).

Conclusions

CVD was unrelated to BCVA, and CVD did not differ significantly among amblyopic, fellow and normal control eyes. These results suggest that the local CVD of Haller’s layer is unaffected in unilateral hyperopic amblyopic eyes.

Psychomotor, Psychosocial and Reading Skills in Children with Amblyopia and the Effect of Different Treatments

Amblyopia influences psychomotor and psychosocial skills, although not all studies are unanimous. Different treatments coexist, but the effect on those variables is not clear. This study aims to probe whether children with amblyopia have impairments in these areas and if different optometric treatments reduce them effectively. 50 children, diagnosed with amblyopia, and 33 without amblyopia participated in this study. Eye-hand coordination, psychosocial skills and reading abilities, were measured before and after three months of different treatments (patch, patch and near vision activities and perceptual learning). Results revealed lower scores in eye-hand coordination and some reading issues in children with amblyopia, without differences in psychosocial skills in regard to the control group. Moreover, optometric treatments improved eye-hand coordination.

Active Vision Therapy for Anisometropic Amblyopia in Children: A Systematic Review

Purpose

The aim of the study was evaluation of the scientific evidence about the efficacy of vision therapy in children and teenagers with anisometropic amblyopia by performing a systematic literature review.

Methods

A search was performed using 3 searching strategies in 4 different databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and PruQuest). The quality of the included articles was evaluated using two tools for the risk of bias assessment, ROBINS-I for nonrandomized studies of intervention (NRSI), and ROB 2.0 for randomized clinical trials.

Results

The search showed 1274 references, but only 8 of them passed the inclusion criteria after the complete text review. The articles that were finally included comprised 2 randomized control trials and 6 nonrandomized studies of intervention. These articles provided evidence supporting the efficacy of vision therapy for the treatment of anisometropic amblyopia in children and teenagers. Assessment of the risk of bias showed an appropriate risk of bias for the randomized control trials, but a high risk of bias for nonrandomized studies of intervention (NRSI). A main source of risk of bias for NRSI was the domain related to the measurements of the outcomes, due to a lack of double-blind studies.

Conclusion

Vision therapy is a promising option for the treatment of anisometropic amblyopia in children and teenagers. However, the level of scientific evidence provided by the studies revised is still limited, and further randomized clinical trials are necessary to confirm the results provided to date and to optimize the vision therapy techniques by knowing the specific neural mechanisms involved.

Active efficient coding explains the development of binocular vision and its failure in amblyopia

Brains must operate in an energy-efficient manner. The efficient coding hypothesis states that sensory systems achieve this by adapting neural representations to the statistics of sensory input signals. Importantly, however, these statistics are shaped by the organism’s behavior and how it samples information from the environment. Therefore, optimal performance requires jointly optimizing neural representations and behavior, a theory called active efficient coding. Here, we test the plausibility of this theory by proposing a computational model of the development of binocular vision. The model explains the development of accurate binocular vision under healthy conditions. In the case of refractive errors, however, the model develops an amblyopia-like state and suggests conditions for successful treatment.

The development of vision during the first months of life is an active process that comprises the learning of appropriate neural representations and the learning of accurate eye movements. While it has long been suspected that the two learning processes are coupled, there is still no widely accepted theoretical framework describing this joint development. Here, we propose a computational model of the development of active binocular vision to fill this gap. The model is based on a formulation of the active efficient coding theory, which proposes that eye movements as well as stimulus encoding are jointly adapted to maximize the overall coding efficiency. Under healthy conditions, the model self-calibrates to perform accurate vergence and accommodation eye movements. It exploits disparity cues to deduce the direction of defocus, which leads to coordinated vergence and accommodation responses. In a simulated anisometropic case, where the refraction power of the two eyes differs, an amblyopia-like state develops in which the foveal region of one eye is suppressed due to inputs from the other eye. After correcting for refractive errors, the model can only reach healthy performance levels if receptive fields are still plastic, in line with findings on a critical period for binocular vision development. Overall, our model offers a unifying conceptual framework for understanding the development of binocular vision.

Impact of Visual Cues on the Magnitude and Variability of the Accommodative Response in Children With Emmetropia and Uncorrected Hyperopia and Adults

Purpose

We investigated the effect of blur and disparity cues on accommodative accuracy (lag) and variability (time [RMS] and frequency domain [LFC]) in the developing visual system.

Methods

A total of 59 children (3–9 years, spherical equivalent refractive error [RE] = −0.3– +4.91 diopters [D]) and 10 adults (23–31 years, RE = −0.37–+1.15D) participated. Accommodation was measured in the right eye for 1 minute at 100 and 33 cm using photorefraction (25 Hz) for three conditions: blur + disparity (binocular, 20/50 optotypes), blur-only (monocular, 20/50 optotypes), disparity-only (binocular, difference-of-Gaussian stimulus). The effect blur and disparity cues have on accommodative accuracy, RMS, and LFC was assessed.

Results

Lag, RMS, and LFC increased (P < 0.001) from 100 to 33 cm for each condition in children and adults. In children, accommodation was most accurate and stable when blur and disparity cues remained in the stimulus and became significantly less accurate and more variable (P < 0.001) when blur or disparity cues were removed at 33 cm. In adults, accommodation was significantly less accurate and more variable only when blur was removed from the stimulus (P < 0.022). Children with RE matched to adults had less accurate and more variable accommodative responses at near than adults when cues were removed (P ≤ 0.02).

Conclusions

In children and adults, an increase in RMS and LFC is related to an increase in accommodative lag. Children's accommodative systems do not compensate as efficiently as adults when blur and disparity cues are removed, suggesting children <10 years old do not have a mature afferent visual pathway.

Longitudinal Evaluation of Accommodation During Treatment for Unilateral Amblyopia

Purpose

Retinal image quality is dependent on accommodative performance. This longitudinal observational study of children with unilateral amblyopia evaluated the accommodative performance of the amblyopic eye during treatment.

Methods

Twenty-six participants with unilateral amblyopia and 10 participants with typical vision aged 3 to 10 years participated. Accommodative response was measured using modified Nott retinoscopy in monocular and binocular viewing conditions for target distances of 50, 33, and 25 cm, at enrollment and each follow-up visit.

Results

Participants with amblyopia accommodated less accurately when viewing with their amblyopic eye in monocular than in binocular conditions. Over the course of amblyopia treatment, accommodative performance improved with amblyopic eye visual acuity (VA) improvement, although this was not consistent across individual participants. A linear mixed model showed that accommodative error worsened with increasing depth of amblyopia for monocular viewing with the amblyopic eye (0.14 diopter [D] per line of acuity loss, P = 0.001), with an interaction between VA and stimulus demand (0.09 D of additional lag per diopter of stimulus, per line of acuity loss, P < 0.001). Participant age, patching duration, length of time in the study, history of strabismus, and stereoacuity were not significant predictors of accommodative performance.

Conclusions

Overall, poor monocular accommodative performance of the amblyopic eye was associated with worse amblyopia and improved simultaneously with VA improvement, although there was variability across the study cohort. Further research is needed to determine the causal relationship between amblyopic eye VA and accommodation and its impact on amblyopia treatment.

Amblyopia in High Accommodative Convergence/Accommodation Ratio Accommodative Esotropia. Influence of Bifocals on Treatment Outcome

PURPOSE

To study the influence of bifocal use on amblyopia treatment outcome in high accommodative convergence/accommodation (AC/A) ratio accommodative esotropia with deviation only at near.

DESIGN

Retrospective comparative case series.

METHODS

Setting: Tertiary referral center.

PATIENTS

Children with high AC/A ratio accommodative esotropia aged 3-8 years old, with deviation only at near with glasses, neutralized with bifocal lenses (follow-up 1 year).

INTERVENTION

Amblyopia was treated with patching. We compared bifocal and single-vision glasses users at 6 months and 1 year, with control of potential confounding variables (multiple regression).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

LogMAR lines of improvement in visual acuity of the amblyopic eye, and improvement in stereoacuity.

RESULTS

Of 78 children, 61 were eligible. All patients wore single-vision glasses for 2 months (baseline visit), 46 of them changed to bifocals. Of 27 initially amblyopic children, 21 remained amblyopic at 2-month baseline (13 of them changed to bifocals). After adjustment for initial deviation, refraction, age, and amblyopia, improvement of visual acuity in the amblyopic eye was larger in the bifocal vs single-vision group at 6 months (mean 2.6 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.9-2.9] logMAR lines vs mean 1.9 [95% CI: 0.5-2.2] logMAR lines, respectively, P = .01), but not at 1 year (mean 2.7 [95% CI: 2.2-3.1] logMAR lines vs mean 2.3 [95% CI: 1.6-3.1] logMAR lines, respectively, P = .3). Improvement of stereoacuity was not significantly different between the 2 groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Use of bifocals may provide a transient advantage, but improvement in visual acuity and stereopsis is equal with single-vision glasses over time.

The functional impact of amblyopia

Amblyopia is the most common disorder managed in paediatric ophthalmic practice in industrialised countries. Reports on the impact of amblyopia on tasks relevant to the activities of children, or on skills pertinent to their education and quality of life, is leading to greater understanding of the functional disabilities associated with the condition. This review considers the extent to which amblyopia affects the ability to carry out everyday tasks, with particular attention to studies of motor skills and reading proficiency in children. Collectively, these studies show that amblyopia results in poorer outcomes on tests of skills required for proficiency in everyday tasks and which relate to childhood academic performance. However, the relative contributions that the documented vision anomalies inherent in amblyopia contribute to various functional disabilities is not fully determined. Recent reports have demonstrated improvement following treatment in standardised measures of fine motor skills involved in practical, everyday tasks. Including measurement of functional performance skills in amblyopia treatment trials is desirable to show treatment effect on crucial, real-world activities.

Asymmetrical accommodation in hyperopic anisometropic amblyopia

BACKGROUND/AIMS

To investigate the presence of asymmetrical accommodation in hyperopic anisometropic amblyopia.

METHODS

Accommodation in each eye and binocular vergence were measured simultaneously using a PlusoptiX SO4 photorefractor in 26 children aged 4-8 years with hyperopic anisometropic amblyopia and 13 controls (group age-matched) while they viewed a detailed target moving in depth.

RESULTS

Without spectacles, only 5 (19%) anisometropes demonstrated symmetrical accommodation (within the 95% CI of the mean gain of the sound eye of the anisometropic group), whereas 21 (81%) demonstrated asymmetrical accommodation. Of those, 15 (58%) showed aniso-accommodation and 6 (23%) demonstrated 'anti-accommodation' (greater accommodation for distance than for near). In those with anti-accommodation, the response gain in the sound eye was (0.93±0.20) while that of the amblyopic eye showed a negative accommodation gain of (-0.44±0.23). Anti-accommodation resolved with spectacles. Vergence gains were typical in those with symmetrical and asymmetrical accommodation.

CONCLUSION

The majority of hyperopic anisometropic amblyopes demonstrated non-consensual asymmetrical accommodation. Approximately one in four demonstrated anti-accommodation.

Functional visual acuity in patients with successfully treated amblyopia: a pilot study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to use conventional visual acuity measurements to quantify the functional visual acuity (FVA) in eyes with successfully treated amblyopia, and to compare the findings with those for contralateral normal eyes.

METHODS

Nineteen patients (7 boys, 12 girls; age 7.5 ± 2.2 years) with successfully treated unilateral amblyopia and the same conventional decimal visual acuity in both eyes (better than 1.0) were enrolled. FVA, the visual maintenance ratio (VMR), maximum and minimum visual acuity, and the average response time were recorded for both eyes of all patients using an FVA measurement system. The differences in FVA values between eyes were analyzed.

RESULTS

The mean LogMAR FVA scores, VMR (p < 0.001 for both), and the LogMAR maximum (p < 0.005) and minimum visual acuity (p < 0.001) were significantly poorer for the eyes with treated amblyopia than for the contralateral normal eyes. There was no significant difference in the average response time.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that FVA and VMR were poorer for eyes with treated amblyopia than for normal eyes, even though the treatment for amblyopia was considered successful on the basis of conventional visual acuity measurements. These results suggest that visual function is impaired in eyes with amblyopia, regardless of treatment success, and that FVA measurements can provide highly valuable diagnosis and treatment information that is not readily provided by conventional visual acuity measurements.

Choroidal Structure in Children with Anisohypermetropic Amblyopia Determined by Binarization of Optical Coherence Tomographic Images

Purpose

To compare the choroidal structure of the subfoveal area in the eyes of children with anisohypermetropic amblyopia to that of the fellow eyes and to age-matched controls using a binarization method of the images obtained by enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography (EDI-OCT).

Methods

This study was performed at Nara Medical University Hospital, Tokushima University Hospital, and Kagoshima University Hospital, Japan. Forty amblyopic eyes with anisohypermetropic amblyopia and their fellow eyes (5.9 ± 2.1 years, mean ± standard deviation), and 103 age-matched controls (6.7 ± 2.4 years) were studied. The control eyes were divided into myopic, emmetropic, and hyperopic eyes. The total choroidal area, luminal area and stromal area of the subfoveal choroid were measured by the binarization method. The luminal/stromal ratio and the axial length of the amblyopic eyes were compared to that of the control eyes.

Results

The total choroidal area in the amblyopic eyes was significantly larger than that of the fellow eyes (P = 0.005). The luminal/stromal ratio was significantly larger in the amblyopic eyes than that of the fellow eyes (P<0.001) and the control hyperopic eyes (P<0.001). There was a significant negative correlation between the luminal/stromal ratio and the axial length in the control eyes (r = -0.30, P = 0.001), but no significant correlation was found in the amblyopic eyes.

Conclusions

The choroidal structure of the amblyopic eyes was different from that of the fellow and the control hyperopic eyes. The choroidal changes are related to amblyopia.