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Holmqvist K, Örbom SL, Hooge ITC, Niehorster DC, Alexander RG, Andersson R, Benjamins JS, Blignaut P, Brouwer AM, Chuang LL, Dalrymple KA, Drieghe D, Dunn MJ, Ettinger U, Fiedler S, Foulsham T, van der Geest JN, Hansen DW, Hutton SB, Kasneci E, Kingstone A, Knox PC, Kok EM, Lee H, Lee JY, Leppänen JM, Macknik S, Majaranta P, Martinez-Conde S, Nuthmann A, Nyström M, Orquin JL, Otero-Millan J, Park SY, Popelka S, Proudlock F, Renkewitz F, Roorda A, Schulte-Mecklenbeck M, Sharif B, Shic F, Shovman M, Thomas MG, Venrooij W, Zemblys R, Hessels RS. Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:364-416. [PMID: 35384605 PMCID: PMC9535040 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01762-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a review of how the various aspects of any study using an eye tracker (such as the instrument, methodology, environment, participant, etc.) affect the quality of the recorded eye-tracking data and the obtained eye-movement and gaze measures. We take this review to represent the empirical foundation for reporting guidelines of any study involving an eye tracker. We compare this empirical foundation to five existing reporting guidelines and to a database of 207 published eye-tracking studies. We find that reporting guidelines vary substantially and do not match with actual reporting practices. We end by deriving a minimal, flexible reporting guideline based on empirical research (Section "An empirically based minimal reporting guideline").
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Holmqvist
- Department of Psychology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland.
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Saga Lee Örbom
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab and Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Robert G Alexander
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | | | - Jeroen S Benjamins
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Social, Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter Blignaut
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | | | - Lewis L Chuang
- Department of Ergonomics, Leibniz Institute for Working Environments and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
- Institute of Informatics, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Matt J Dunn
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Susann Fiedler
- Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tom Foulsham
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Essex, UK
| | | | - Dan Witzner Hansen
- Machine Learning Group, Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Enkelejda Kasneci
- Human-Computer Interaction, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Paul C Knox
- Department of Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ellen M Kok
- Department of Education and Pedagogy, Division Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Online Learning and Instruction, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands
| | - Helena Lee
- University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Joy Yeonjoo Lee
- School of Health Professions Education, Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jukka M Leppänen
- Department of Psychology and Speed-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Stephen Macknik
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Päivi Majaranta
- TAUCHI Research Center, Computing Sciences, Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Susana Martinez-Conde
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Antje Nuthmann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jacob L Orquin
- Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Research in Marketing and Consumer Psychology, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Jorge Otero-Millan
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Soon Young Park
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stanislav Popelka
- Department of Geoinformatics, Palacký University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Frank Proudlock
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Frank Renkewitz
- Department of Psychology, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Austin Roorda
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Bonita Sharif
- School of Computing, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Frederick Shic
- Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of General Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mark Shovman
- Eyeviation Systems, Herzliya, Israel
- Department of Industrial Design, Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Mervyn G Thomas
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Ward Venrooij
- Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science (EEMCS), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | | | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Correlation between Eye Movements and Asthenopia: A Prospective Observational Study. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11237043. [PMID: 36498619 PMCID: PMC9739550 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11237043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To analyze the correlation between eye movements and asthenopia so as to explore the possibility of using eye-tracking techniques for objective assessment of asthenopia. Methods: This prospective observational study used the computer visual syndrome questionnaire to assess the severity of asthenopia in 93 enrolled college students (age 20−30) who complained about asthenopia. Binocular accommodation and eye movements during the reading task were also examined. The correlations between questionnaire score and accommodation examination results and eye movement parameters were analyzed. Differences in eye movement parameters between the first and last reading paragraphs were compared. The trends in eye movement changes over time were observed. Results: About 81.7% of the subjects suffered from computer visual syndrome. Computer visual syndrome questionnaire total score was positively correlated with positive relative accommodation (p < 0.05). In the first reading paragraph, double vision was positively correlated with unknown saccades (all p < 0.05). Difficulty focusing at close range was positively correlated with total fixation duration, total visit duration, and reading speed (all p < 0.05). Feeling that sight was worsening was positively correlated with regressive saccades (p < 0.05). However, visual impairment symptoms were not significantly correlated with any accommodative function. In a total 20 min reading, significantly reduced eye movement parameters were: total fixation duration, fixation count, total visit duration, visit count, fixation duration mean, and reading speed (all p < 0.01). The eye movement parameters that were significantly increased were: visit duration mean and unknown saccades (all p < 0.001). Conclusion: Eye tracking could be used as an effective assessment for asthenopia. Among the various eye movement parameters, a decrease in fixation duration and counts may be one of the potential indicators related to asthenopia.
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Zhou Y, Bian H, Yu X, Wen W, Zhao C. Quantitative assessment of eye movements using a binocular paradigm: comparison among amblyopic, recovered amblyopic and normal children. BMC Ophthalmol 2022; 22:365. [PMID: 36085016 PMCID: PMC9461109 DOI: 10.1186/s12886-022-02579-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To investigate the eye movement functions in children with amblyopia and recovered amblyopia by a binocular eye-tracking paradigm. METHODS Eye movements of 135 pediatric subjects (age range: 4-14 years), including 45 amblyopic children, 45 recovered amblyopic children and 45 age-similar normal controls, were recorded under binocular viewing with corrected refractive errors (if any). The deviation of gaze positions relative to the target location was recorded as the mean from both eyes. Main outcome measures included fixation deviations (degree) along horizontal and vertical axes in the sustained fixation test (Fix-X, Fix-Y) and visually guided saccade test (Sac-X, Sac-Y), which were compared across the three groups and between each two groups. RESULTS All the four deviations were significantly larger in the amblyopia group compared to the other two groups, indicating increased inaccuracy of sustained and post-saccadic fixations in amblyopia. However, there was no significant difference in deviations between recovered amblyopic children and normal controls. Repeated measures showed similar results overall and within each group. Mild to moderate amblyopes and severe amblyopes did not differ in the four deviations. No significant interaction was found between subject groups and clinical characteristics (age, refractive status, and anisometropia). CONCLUSION Amblyopic children have poor eye movement functions with increased inaccuracy of sustained and post-saccadic fixations, which appear to be restored in children with recovered amblyopia. Binocular assessment of eye movements provides valuable indicators of functional recovery in amblyopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulian Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Eye & ENT Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
- Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Hewei Bian
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Eye & ENT Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
- Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Xiaobin Yu
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Wen Wen
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Eye & ENT Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China.
- Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Eye & ENT Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, 83 Fenyang Rd, Shanghai, 200031, China.
| | - Chen Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Eye & ENT Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China.
- Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Eye & ENT Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, 83 Fenyang Rd, Shanghai, 200031, China.
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Ghasia F, Wang J. Amblyopia and fixation eye movements. J Neurol Sci 2022; 441:120373. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2022.120373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Murray J, Gupta P, Dulaney C, Garg K, Shaikh AG, Ghasia FF. Effect of Viewing Conditions on Fixation Eye Movements and Eye Alignment in Amblyopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2022; 63:33. [PMID: 35212720 PMCID: PMC8883146 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.63.2.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Patients with amblyopia are known to have fixation instability, which arises from alteration of physiologic fixation eye movements (FEMs) and nystagmus. We assessed the effects of monocular, binocular, and dichoptic viewing on FEMs and eye alignment in patients with and without fusion maldevelopment nystagmus (FMN). Methods Thirty-four patients with amblyopia and seven healthy controls were recruited for this study. Eye movements were recorded using infrared video-oculography during (1) fellow eye viewing (FEV), (2) amblyopic eye viewing (AEV), (3) both eye viewing (BEV), and (4) dichoptic viewing (DcV) at varying fellow eye (FE) contrasts. The patients were classified per the clinical type of amblyopia and FEM waveforms into those without nystagmus, those with nystagmus with and without FMN. Fixational saccades and intersaccadic drifts, quick and slow phases of nystagmus, and bivariate contour ellipse area were analyzed in the FE and amblyopic eye (AE). Results We found that FEMs are differentially affected with increased amplitude of quick phases of FMN observed during AEV than BEV and during DcV at lower FE contrasts. Increased fixation instability was seen in anisometropic patients at lower FE contrasts. Incomitance of eye misalignment was seen with the greatest increase during FEV. Strabismic/mixed amblyopia patients without FMN were more likely to demonstrate a fixation switch where the AE attends to the target during DcV than patients with FMN. Conclusions Our findings suggest that FEM abnormalities modulate with different viewing conditions as used in various amblyopia therapies. Increased FEM abnormalities could affect the visual function deficits and may have treatment implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Murray
- Visual Neurosciences and Ocular Motility Laboratory, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
| | - Palak Gupta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States.,Daroff-Dell'Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
| | - Cody Dulaney
- Visual Neurosciences and Ocular Motility Laboratory, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
| | - Kiran Garg
- Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
| | - Aasef G Shaikh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States.,Daroff-Dell'Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, United States.,Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, University Hospitals, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
| | - Fatema F Ghasia
- Visual Neurosciences and Ocular Motility Laboratory, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, United States.,Daroff-Dell'Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
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Kang MT, Wang B, Ran AR, Gan J, Du J, Yusufu M, Liang X, Li SM, Wang N. Brain Activation Induced by Myopic and Hyperopic Defocus From Spectacles. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:711713. [PMID: 34594194 PMCID: PMC8477670 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.711713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To assess neural changes in perceptual effects induced by myopic defocus and hyperopic defocus stimuli in ametropic and emmetropic subjects using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Methods: This study included 41 subjects with a mean age of 26.0 ± 2.9 years. The mean spherical equivalence refraction was −0.54 ± 0.51D in the emmetropic group and −3.57 ± 2.27D in the ametropic group. The subjects were instructed to view through full refractive correction, with values of +2.00D to induce myopic defocus state and −2.00D to induce hyperopic defocus state. This was carried over in three random sessions. Arterial spin labeling (ASL) perfusion was measured using fMRI to obtain quantified regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). Behavioral tests including distant visual acuity (VA) and contrast sensitivity (CS), were measured every 5 min for 30 min. Results: Myopic defocus induced significantly greater rCBF increase in four cerebral regions compared with full correction: right precentral gyrus, right superior temporal gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, and left middle temporal gyrus (P < 0.001). The differences were less significant in low myopes than emmetropes. In the hyperopic defocus session, the increased responses of rCBF were only observed in the right and left precentral gyrus. Myopic defocused VA and CS improved significantly within 5 min and reached a plateau shortly after. Conclusion: This study revealed that myopic defocus stimuli can significantly increase blood perfusion in visual attention-related cerebral regions, which suggests a potential direction for future investigation on the relationship between retinal defocus and its neural consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Tian Kang
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Bo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - An-Ran Ran
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jiahe Gan
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jialing Du
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Mayinuer Yusufu
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xintong Liang
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shi-Ming Li
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ningli Wang
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Mestre C, Bedell HE, Díaz-Doutón F, Pujol J, Gautier J. Characteristics of saccades during the near point of convergence test. Vision Res 2021; 187:27-40. [PMID: 34147850 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2021.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The near point of convergence test is widely used to evaluate binocular vision. It assesses the ability of the eyes to converge at short distances. Although the test consists of a pure symmetrical vergence task, small involuntary saccades occur concurrently. The main goal of this study was to analyze saccadic characteristics as a function of vergence demand when testing the near point of convergence. To this purpose, the eye movements of 11 participants were registered with an eye-tracker while they performed the near point of convergence test by following a target that traveled forward and backward on a motorized bench. Saccade amplitude increased and, on average, saccade rate decreased with vergence demand. In general, the direction of the concurrent vergence movement had no significant effect on saccade characteristics. However, each individual subject showed idiosyncratic behavior. Most saccades tended to be corrective in terms of both binocular disparity and individual fixation position errors. In particular, most participants tended to correct the fixation position error of the dominant eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Mestre
- Centre for Sensors, Instruments and Systems Development (CD6), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Rambla Sant Nebridi, 10, 08222 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Harold E Bedell
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, 4800 Calhoun Rd, Houston, TX 77004, USA
| | - Fernando Díaz-Doutón
- Centre for Sensors, Instruments and Systems Development (CD6), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Rambla Sant Nebridi, 10, 08222 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jaume Pujol
- Centre for Sensors, Instruments and Systems Development (CD6), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Rambla Sant Nebridi, 10, 08222 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josselin Gautier
- School of Optometry, University of California, 380 Minor Ln, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Abstract
Subjective refraction is the gold-standard for prescribing refractive correction, but its accuracy is limited by patient’s subjective judgment about their clarity of vision. We asked if an involuntary eye movement, optokinetic nystagmus (OKN), could serve as an objective measure of visual-clarity, specifically measuring the dependence of OKN—elicited by drifting spatial-frequency filtered noise—on mean spherical equivalent (MSE) refractive error. In Experiment 1 we quantified OKN score—a measure of consistency with stimulus-direction—for participants with different MSEs. Estimates of MSE based on OKN scores correlate well with estimates of MSE made using autorefraction (r = 0.878, p < 0.001, Bland–Altman analysis: mean difference of 0.00D (95% limits of agreement: − 0.85 to + 0.85D). In Experiment 2, we quantified the relationship between OKN gain (ratio of tracking eye-movement velocity to stimulus velocity) and MSEs (− 2.00, − 1.00, − 0.50, 0.00 and + 1.00D) induced with contact lenses for each participant. The mean difference between measures of MSE based on autorefraction or on OKN gain was + 0.05D (− 0.90 to + 1.01D), and the correlation of these measures across participants was r = 0.976, p < 0.001. Results indicate that MSE attenuates OKN gain so that OKN can be used as an objective proxy for patient response to select the best corrective lens.
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Doustkouhi SM, Turnbull PRK, Dakin SC. The Effect of Simulated Visual Field Loss on Optokinetic Nystagmus. Transl Vis Sci Technol 2020; 9:25. [PMID: 32742755 PMCID: PMC7354858 DOI: 10.1167/tvst.9.3.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Assessment of functional vision across the visual field is hampered by a reliance on patients' subjective judgement of the presence of a stimulus, and the accompanying demands (time and attention) this places on them. As a first step toward determining whether an objective measure of an involuntary eye movement (optokinetic nystagmus [OKN]) could provide an objective measure of field loss, we determined how various measures of OKN depend on the extent of simulated visual field loss (SVFL). Methods We used infrared eye-tracking to measure the eye movements of 16 healthy participants viewing horizontally translating 2-dimensional noise patterns over trials of varying contrasts and different levels of SVFL. We quantified the strength of OKN by estimating the velocity of tracking eye movements compared to the stimulus (OKN gain). These measurements were made using an open-loop SVFL paradigm, where a varying amount of gaze-contingent peripheral stimuli was occluded. Results Full-field stimulation led to an average OKN gain of 0.92 ± 0.15. This value fell steadily with increasing SVFL to a value of 0.38 ± 0.20 when the periphery was not stimulated at all (i.e., the stimulus was a 5-deg. diameter foveal patch). We note considerable individual variation in OKN gain in all conditions. Conclusions Measuring the extent of visual field loss using an objective measure of OKN gain is feasible. Translational Relevance Simulated visual field loss reduces optokinetic nystagmus, but further refinement of this technique would be required to overcome individual differences and to pick up clinically relevant field defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soheil M Doustkouhi
- School of Optometry & Vision Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,New Zealand National Eye Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Philip R K Turnbull
- School of Optometry & Vision Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,New Zealand National Eye Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Steven C Dakin
- School of Optometry & Vision Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,New Zealand National Eye Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK
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Impaired Saccade Adaptation in Tremor-Dominant Cervical Dystonia-Evidence for Maladaptive Cerebellum. THE CEREBELLUM 2020; 20:678-686. [PMID: 31965455 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-020-01104-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We examined the role of the cerebellum in patients with tremor-dominant cervical dystonia by measuring the adaptive capacity of rapid reflexive eye movements (saccades). We chose the saccade adaptation paradigm because, unlike other motor learning paradigms, the real-time modification of saccades cannot "wait" for the sensory (visual) feedback. Instead, saccades rely primarily on the internal reafference modulated by the cerebellum. The saccade adaptation happens over fast and slow timescales. The fast timescale has poor retention of learned response, while the slow timescale has strong retention. Cerebellar defects resulting in loss of function affect the fast timescale but the slow timescale of saccade adaptation is retained. In contrast, maladaptive cerebellar disorders feature the absence of both fast and slow timescales. We were able to measure both timescales using noninvasive oculography in 6 normal individuals. In contrast, both timescales were absent in 12 patients with tremor-dominant cervical dystonia. These findings are consistent with maladaptive cerebellar outflow as a putative pathophysiological basis for tremor-dominant cervical dystonia.
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Wahl S, Dragneva D, Rifai K. The limits of fixation-Keeping the ametropic eye on target. J Vis 2019; 19:8. [PMID: 31715631 DOI: 10.1167/19.13.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate positioning of the naked eye is a prerequisite in many ophthalmic measurement and intervention systems. In most of these procedures the eyeball is stabilized through fixation of a target. Fixation is initiated, as well as sustained by a whole set of oculomotor processes: saccadic movements and drift, as well as vergence. Target appearance influences sustained fixation, but the influence of target information on the initiation of fixation has not been evaluated in detail. The current study evaluates the accuracy of fixation initiation as well as sustained fixation under refractive error. Twenty-one ametrope subjects repeatedly fixated a laser speckle-based fixation target for an extended duration of 3 s. Fixational area, fixational saccade rate as well as fixational saccade amplitude were analyzed during two different time intervals, namely in fixation initiation and sustained fixation. Fixation initiation was evaluated within the first 500 ms of fixation, whereas sustained fixation was evaluated 1 s after the eyes were directed toward the fixation target. During fixation initiation, fixation accuracy decreased in comparison to sustained fixation; fixational saccades occurred more frequently, and with larger amplitudes. During sustained fixation, an impact of refractive error was shown. With increasing refractive error, fixational saccade amplitude and fixational saccade rate increased. Fixational area increased in high ametropia through larger and more frequent saccades, but at a rather moderate rate of 10 arcmin/diopter (dpt) radial increase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siegfried Wahl
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany.,Carl Zeiss Vision International GmbH, Aalen, Germany
| | - Denitsa Dragneva
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Rifai
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany.,Carl Zeiss Vision International GmbH, Aalen, Germany
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12
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Tang S, Skelly P, Otero-Millan J, Jacobs J, Murray J, Shaikh AG, Ghasia FF. Effects of visual blur on microsaccades during visual exploration. J Eye Mov Res 2019; 12. [PMID: 33828759 PMCID: PMC7962686 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.6.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Microsaccades shift the image on the fovea and counteract visual fading. They also serve as an optimal
sampling strategy while viewing complex visual scenes. Microsaccade production relies on the amount of
retinal error or acuity demand of a visual task. The goal of this study was to assess the effects of blur induced by uncorrected refractive error on visual search. Eye movements were recorded in fourteen healthy
subjects with uncorrected and corrected refractive error while they performed a) visual fixation b) blankscene viewing c) visual search (spot the difference) tasks. Microsaccades, saccades, correctly identified
differences and reaction times were analyzed. The frequency of microsaccades and correctly identified
differences were lower in the uncorrected refractive error during visual search. No similar change in microsaccades was seen during blank-scene viewing and gaze holding tasks. These findings suggest that visual
blur, hence the precision of an image on the fovea, has an important role in calibrating the amplitude of
microsaccades during visual scanning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherry Tang
- Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, USA
| | | | - Jorge Otero-Millan
- Vestibular and Ocular Motor Research Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, USA
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13
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Kang SL, Beylergil SB, Otero-Millan J, Shaikh AG, Ghasia FF. Fixational Eye Movement Waveforms in Amblyopia: Characteristics of Fast and Slow Eye Movements. J Eye Mov Res 2019; 12. [PMID: 33828757 PMCID: PMC7962684 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.6.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fixational eye movements comprise of fast microsaccades alternating with slow intersaccadic drifts. These physiologic eye movements play an important role in visual perception. Amblyopic patients are known to have fixation instability, particularly of the amblyopic eye. We examined eye movement abnormalities that contribute to this instability. We
found that fixation stability is affected by the presence of fusion maldevelopment nystagmus (FMN). However, some amblyopes can have nystagmus without nasally directed slow
phases and reversal in direction of the quick phase on ocular occlusion, features seen in
FMN. In patients without nystagmus, we found increased amplitude of fixational saccades
and inter-saccadic drifts. We categorized amblyopia patients by type (anisometropic,
strabismic, or mixed) and eye movement waveform (no nystagmus, nystagmus without
FMN, and FMN). We found specific fast and slow eye movement abnormalities of the
fellow and amblyopic eye during fellow, amblyopic and both eyes viewing conditions
across eye movement waveforms and types of amblyopia. These eye movement abnormalities can serve as biomarkers that can predict the impact of amblyopia as measured by
visual acuity and stereopsis. Evaluation of fixational eye movements in amblyopia could
be important to diagnose these common eye diseases and predict treatment effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Kang
- Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, USA
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14
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Chen D, Otero-Millan J, Kumar P, Shaikh AG, Ghasia FF. Visual Search in Amblyopia: Abnormal Fixational Eye Movements and Suboptimal Sampling Strategies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 59:4506-4517. [PMID: 30208418 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.18-24794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Microsaccades shift the image on the fovea and counteract visual fading. They are also thought to serve as an optimal sampling strategy while viewing complex visual scenes. The goal of our study was to assess visual search in amblyopic children. Methods Twenty-one amblyopic children with varying severity of amblyopia and 10 healthy controls were recruited. Eye movements were recorded using infrared video-oculography during amblyopic and fellow eye viewing while the subjects performed (1) visual fixation, (2) exploration of a blank scene, and (3) visual search task (spot the difference between two images). The number of correctly identified picture differences and reaction time were recorded. Microsaccade, saccades, and intersaccadic drifts were analyzed in patients without latent nystagmus (LN). Slow phase velocities were computed for patients with LN. Results Both patients with and without LN were able to spot the same number of differences but took longer during fellow eye viewing compared to controls. The ability to identify differences was diminished during amblyopic eye viewing particularly those with LN and severe amblyopia. We found reduced frequencies of microsaccades and saccades in both amblyopic and fellow eyes during fixation and visual search but not during exploration of blank scene. Across all tasks, amblyopes with LN had increased intersaccadic drifts. Conclusions Our findings suggest that deficient microsaccade and saccadic activity contributes to poorer sampling strategy in amblyopia, which is seen in both amblyopic and fellow eye. These deficits are more notable among subjects who experienced binocular decorrelation earlier in life, with subsequent development of LN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinah Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States.,Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
| | - Jorge Otero-Millan
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Priyanka Kumar
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Aasef G Shaikh
- Department of Neurology, University Hospitals, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States.,Daroff-Dell'Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
| | - Fatema F Ghasia
- Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, United States.,Daroff-Dell'Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
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15
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Shaikh AG, Ghasia FF. Saccades in Parkinson's disease: Hypometric, slow, and maladaptive. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2019; 249:81-94. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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16
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Alexander RG, Macknik SL, Martinez-Conde S. Microsaccade Characteristics in Neurological and Ophthalmic Disease. Front Neurol 2018; 9:144. [PMID: 29593642 PMCID: PMC5859063 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Microsaccade research has recently reached a critical mass of studies that allows, for the first time, a comprehensive review of how microsaccadic dynamics change in neurological and ophthalmic disease. We discuss the various pathological conditions that affect microsaccades, their impact on microsaccadic and other fixational eye movement dynamics, and the incipient studies that point to microsaccadic features as potential indicators of differential and early diagnoses of multiple clinical conditions, from movement disorders to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder to amblyopia. We propose that the objective assessment of fixational eye movement parameters may help refine differential diagnostics in neurological disease and assist in the evaluation of ongoing therapy regimes. In addition, determining the effects of ophthalmic disease on fixational eye movement features may help evaluate visual impairment in an objective manner, particularly in young patients or those experiencing communication difficulties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert G Alexander
- State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, United States
| | - Stephen L Macknik
- State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, United States
| | - Susana Martinez-Conde
- State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, United States
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17
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Shaikh AG, Finkelstein SR, Schuchard R, Ross G, Juncos JL. Fixational eye movements in Tourette syndrome. Neurol Sci 2017; 38:1977-1984. [PMID: 28815321 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-017-3069-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Studies of saccadic eye movements in subjects with Tourette syndrome (TS) have provided additional evidence that there is a link between TS symptoms and deficits in fronto-striato-thalamic networks. These studies revealed impaired timing and inhibition of saccades. We compared fixational eye movements, such as microsaccades and ocular drifts, in subjects with TS and healthy controls.We measured horizontal and vertical eye positions with video-oculography in 14 subjects with Tourette syndrome. We found reduced microsaccade amplitude but increased time between adjacent microsaccades (intersaccadic interval). Hence, the rate of microsaccades was reduced in subjects with TS compared to controls. Measure of ocular stability during intersaccadic intervals revealed increased drift velocity and increased variance in eye position. We hypothesize that increased activity of the direct fronto-striatal pathway and the resulting reduction in basal ganglia outflow targeting the superior colliculus fixation zone affect the rate and amplitude of microsaccades in subjects with TS. The resulting impairment in frontal eye field fixation leads to increased drifts during intersaccadic interval in subjects with TS. Possible clinical implication for these results is that fixational eye movements can be objective biological markers of TS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aasef G Shaikh
- Depatment of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA. .,Daroff-DelOsso Ocular Motility Laboratory and Neurology Service, Louis Stokes VA Medical Center, Cleveland, OH, USA. .,Department of Neurology, University Hospitals Case Medical Center, 11100 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44110, USA.
| | | | - Ronald Schuchard
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Jorge L Juncos
- Depatment of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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18
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Shaikh AG, Ghasia FF. Novel Eye Movement Disorders in Whipple's Disease-Staircase Horizontal Saccades, Gaze-Evoked Nystagmus, and Esotropia. Front Neurol 2017; 8:321. [PMID: 28744253 PMCID: PMC5504231 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Whipple’s disease, a rare systemic infectious disorder, is complicated by the involvement of the central nervous system in about 5% of cases. Oscillations of the eyes and the jaw, called oculo-masticatory myorhythmia, are pathognomonic of the central nervous system involvement but are often absent. Typical manifestations of the central nervous system Whipple’s disease are cognitive impairment, parkinsonism mimicking progressive supranuclear palsy with vertical saccade slowing, and up-gaze range limitation. We describe a unique patient with the central nervous system Whipple’s disease who had typical features, including parkinsonism, cognitive impairment, and up-gaze limitation; but also had diplopia, esotropia with mild horizontal (abduction more than adduction) limitation, and vertigo. The patient also had gaze-evoked nystagmus and staircase horizontal saccades. Latter were thought to be due to mal-programmed small saccades followed by a series of corrective saccades. The saccades were disconjugate due to the concurrent strabismus. Also, we noted disconjugacy in the slow phase of gaze-evoked nystagmus. The disconjugacy of the slow phase of gaze-evoked nystagmus was larger during monocular viewing condition. We propose that interaction of the strabismic drifts of the covered eyes and the nystagmus drift, putatively at the final common pathway might lead to such disconjugacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aasef G Shaikh
- Daroff-Dell'Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, VA, United States.,Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Neurological Institute, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Neurology Service, Louis Stokes, Cleveland, VA, United States
| | - Fatema F Ghasia
- Daroff-Dell'Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, VA, United States.,Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
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19
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Shaikh AG, Ghasia FF. Fixational saccades are more disconjugate in adults than in children. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175295. [PMID: 28406944 PMCID: PMC5391133 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Fixational eye movements are of particular interest for three reasons. They are critical for preventing visual fading and enhancing visual perception; their disconjugacy allows scanning in three dimensions, and their neural correlates span through the cortico-striatal, striato-collicular and brainstem networks. Fixational eye movements are altered in various pediatric ophthalmologic and neurologic disorders. The goal of this study was to compare the dynamics of fixational eye movements in normal children and adults. METHODS We measured the fixational saccades and inter-saccadic drifts in eye positions using infrared video-oculography in children and adults. We assessed the frequency, amplitude, main-sequence, and disconjugacy of fixational saccades as well as the intra-saccadic drift velocity and variance between these two groups. RESULTS We found a similar frequency but an increase in the amplitude of fixational saccades in children compared to adults. We also found that the fixational saccades were more conjugate in children than in adults. The inter-saccadic drifts were comparable between the two groups. DISCUSSION This study provides normative values of dynamics of fixational eye movement in children and adults. The greater disconjugacy of fixational saccades in adults suggests the existence of neural mechanisms that can independently regulate the movements of two eyes. The differences between adult and pediatric populations could be due to completion of the development of binocularly independent regulation of fixational saccades nearing adulthood. The alternate possibility is that the increased disconjugacy between the two eyes may represent a deficiency in the eye movement performance as a function of increasing age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aasef G. Shaikh
- Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
- Neurology service, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA medical center, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
- Daroff-Del’Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA medical center, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
| | - Fatema F. Ghasia
- Daroff-Del’Osso Ocular Motility Laboratory, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA medical center, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
- Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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