Retrograde nerve growth factor signaling abnormalities in familial dysautonomia

An overview of receptor endocytosis and signaling

Endocytosis is a cellular process which mediates receptor internalization, nutrient uptake, and the regulation of cell signaling. Microorganisms (many bacteria and viruses) and toxins also use the same process and enter the cells. Generally, endocytosis is considered in the three forms such as phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking), and highly selective receptor-mediated endocytosis (clathrin-dependent and independent). Several endocytic routes exist in an analogous, achieving diverse functions. Most studies on endocytosis have used transformed cells in culture. To visualize the receptor internalization, trafficking, and signaling in subcellular organelles, a green fluorescent protein-tagged receptor has been utilized. It also helps to visualize the endocytosis effects in live-cell imaging. Confocal laser microscopy increases our understanding of receptor endocytosis and signaling. Site-directed mutagenesis studies demonstrated that many short-sequence motifs of the cytoplasmic domain of receptors significantly play a vital role in receptor internalization, subcellular trafficking, and signaling. However, other factors also regulate receptor internalization through clathrin-coated vesicles. Receptor endocytosis can occur through clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent pathways. This chapter briefly discusses the internalization, trafficking, and signaling of various receptors in normal conditions. In addition, it also highlights the malfunction of the receptor in disease conditions.

Receptor biology: Challenges and opportunities

Receptor biology provides a great opportunity to understand the ligand-receptor signaling involved in health and disease processes. Receptor endocytosis and signaling play a vital role in health conditions. Receptor-based signaling is the main form of communication between cells and cells with the environment. However, if any irregularities happen during these events, the consequences of pathophysiological conditions occur. Various methods are utilized to know structure, function, and regulation of receptor proteins. Further, live-cell imaging and genetic manipulations have aided in the understanding of receptor internalization, subcellular trafficking, signaling, metabolic degradation, etc. Understanding the genetics, biochemistry, and physiology of receptors and ligands is very helpful to explore various aspects such as prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. However, there are enormous challenges that exist to explore receptor biology further. This chapter briefly discusses the current challenges and emerging opportunities of receptor biology.

Norepinephrine transporter defects lead to sympathetic hyperactivity in Familial Dysautonomia models

Familial dysautonomia (FD), a rare neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorder affects the sympathetic and sensory nervous system. Although almost all patients harbor a mutation in ELP1, it remains unresolved exactly how function of sympathetic neurons (symNs) is affected; knowledge critical for understanding debilitating disease hallmarks, including cardiovascular instability or dysautonomic crises, that result from dysregulated sympathetic activity. Here, we employ the human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) system to understand symN disease mechanisms and test candidate drugs. FD symNs are intrinsically hyperactive in vitro, in cardiomyocyte co-cultures, and in animal models. We report reduced norepinephrine transporter expression, decreased intracellular norepinephrine (NE), decreased NE re-uptake, and excessive extracellular NE in FD symNs. SymN hyperactivity is not a direct ELP1 mutation result, but may connect to NET via RAB proteins. We found that candidate drugs lowered hyperactivity independent of ELP1 modulation. Our findings may have implications for other symN disorders and may allow future drug testing and discovery.

Elp1 is required for development of visceral sensory peripheral and central circuitry

Cardiovascular instability and a blunted respiratory drive in hypoxic conditions are hallmark features of the genetic sensory and autonomic neuropathy, familial dysautonomia (FD). FD results from a mutation in the gene ELP1, the encoded protein of which is a scaffolding subunit of the six-subunit Elongator complex. In mice, we and others have shown that Elp1 is essential for the normal development of neural crest-derived dorsal root ganglia sensory neurons. Whether Elp1 is also required for development of ectodermal placode-derived visceral sensory receptors, which are required for normal baroreception and chemosensory responses, has not been investigated. Using mouse models for FD, we here show that the entire circuitry underlying baroreception and chemoreception is impaired due to a requirement for Elp1 in the visceral sensory neuron ganglia, as well as for normal peripheral target innervation, and in their central nervous system synaptic partners in the medulla. Thus, Elp1 is required in both placode- and neural crest-derived sensory neurons, and its reduction aborts the normal development of neuronal circuitry essential for autonomic homeostasis and interoception.

This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Summary: Our data indicate that Elp1 is required in both placode- and neural crest-derived sensory neurons, and that it exerts comparable effects, including survival, axonal morphology and target innervation in both lineages.

Loss of Elp1 disrupts trigeminal ganglion neurodevelopment in a model of familial dysautonomia

Familial dysautonomia (FD) is a sensory and autonomic neuropathy caused by mutations in elongator complex protein 1 (ELP1). FD patients have small trigeminal nerves and impaired facial pain and temperature perception. These signals are relayed by nociceptive neurons in the trigeminal ganglion, a structure that is composed of both neural crest- and placode-derived cells. Mice lacking Elp1 in neural crest derivatives ('Elp1 CKO') are born with small trigeminal ganglia, suggesting Elp1 is important for trigeminal ganglion development, yet the function of Elp1 in this context is unknown. We demonstrate that Elp1, expressed in both neural crest- and placode-derived neurons, is not required for initial trigeminal ganglion formation. However, Elp1 CKO trigeminal neurons exhibit abnormal axon outgrowth and deficient target innervation. Developing nociceptors expressing the receptor TrkA undergo early apoptosis in Elp1 CKO, while TrkB- and TrkC-expressing neurons are spared, indicating Elp1 supports the target innervation and survival of trigeminal nociceptors. Furthermore, we demonstrate that specific TrkA deficits in the Elp1 CKO trigeminal ganglion reflect the neural crest lineage of most TrkA neurons versus the placodal lineage of most TrkB and TrkC neurons. Altogether, these findings explain defects in cranial gangliogenesis that may lead to loss of facial pain and temperature sensation in FD.

Elp1 facilitates RAD51-mediated homologous recombination repair via translational regulation

Background

RAD51-dependent homologous recombination (HR) is one of the most important pathways for repairing DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), and its regulation is crucial to maintain genome integrity. Elp1 gene encodes IKAP/ELP1, a core subunit of the Elongator complex, which has been implicated in translational regulation. However, how ELP1 contributes to genome maintenance is unclear.

Methods

To investigate the function of Elp1, Elp1-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) were generated. Metaphase chromosome spreading, immunofluorescence, and comet assays were used to access chromosome abnormalities and DSB formation. Functional roles of Elp1 in MEFs were evaluated by cell viability, colony forming capacity, and apoptosis assays. HR-dependent DNA repair was assessed by reporter assay, immunofluorescence, and western blot. Polysome profiling was used to evaluate translational efficiency. Differentially expressed proteins and signaling pathways were identified using a label-free liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) proteomics approach.

Results

Here, we report that Elp1 depletion enhanced genomic instability, manifested as chromosome breakage and genotoxic stress-induced genomic DNA fragmentation upon ionizing radiation (IR) exposure. Elp1-deficient cells were hypersensitive to DNA damage and exhibited impaired cell proliferation and defective HR repair. Moreover, Elp1 depletion reduced the formation of IR-induced RAD51 foci and decreased RAD51 protein levels. Polysome profiling analysis revealed that ELP1 regulated RAD51 expression by promoting its translation in response to DNA damage. Notably, the requirement for ELP1 in DSB repair could be partially rescued in Elp1-deficient cells by reintroducing RAD51, suggesting that Elp1-mediated HR-directed repair of DSBs is RAD51-dependent. Finally, using proteome analyses, we identified several proteins involved in cancer pathways and DNA damage responses as being differentially expressed upon Elp1 depletion.

Conclusions

Our study uncovered a molecular mechanism underlying Elp1-mediated regulation of HR activity and provides a novel link between translational regulation and genome stability.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12929-021-00773-z.

The sympathetic nervous system in development and disease

The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses and maintains homeostasis during daily activities such as exercise, eating a meal or regulation of body temperature. Sympathetic regulation of bodily functions requires the establishment and refinement of anatomically and functionally precise connections between postganglionic sympathetic neurons and peripheral organs distributed widely throughout the body. Mechanistic studies of key events in the formation of postganglionic sympathetic neurons during embryonic and early postnatal life, including axon growth, target innervation, neuron survival, and dendrite growth and synapse formation, have advanced the understanding of how neuronal development is shaped by interactions with peripheral tissues and organs. Recent progress has also been made in identifying how the cellular and molecular diversity of sympathetic neurons is established to meet the functional demands of peripheral organs. In this Review, we summarize current knowledge of signalling pathways underlying the development of the sympathetic nervous system. These findings have implications for unravelling the contribution of sympathetic dysfunction stemming, in part, from developmental perturbations to the pathophysiology of peripheral neuropathies and cardiovascular and metabolic disorders.

The Complex Clinical and Genetic Landscape of Hereditary Peripheral Neuropathy

Hereditary peripheral neuropathy (HPN) is a complex group of neurological disorders caused by mutations in genes expressed by neurons and Schwann cells. The inheritance of a single mutation or multiple mutations in several genes leads to disease phenotype. Patients exhibit symptoms during development, at an early age or later in adulthood. Most of the mechanistic understanding about these neuropathies comes from animal models and histopathological analyses of postmortem human tissues. Diagnosis is often very complex due to the heterogeneity and overlap in symptoms and the frequent overlap between various genes and different mutations they possess. Some symptoms in HPN are common through different subtypes such as axonal degeneration, demyelination, and loss of motor and sensory neurons, leading to similar physiologic abnormalities. Recent advances in gene-targeted therapies, genetic engineering, and next-generation sequencing have augmented our understanding of the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms of HPN.

(H)Elping nerve growth factor: Elp1 inhibits TrkA's phosphatase to maintain retrograde signaling

Nerve growth factor (NGF) regulates many aspects of neuronal biology by retrogradely propagating signals along axons to the targets of those axons. How this occurs when axons contain a plethora of proteins that can silence those signals has long perplexed the neurotrophin field. In this issue of the JCI, Li et al. suggest an answer to this vexing problem, while exploring why the Elp1 gene that is mutated in familial dysautonomia (FD) causes peripheral neuropathy. They describe a distinctive function of Elp1 as a protein that is required to sustain NGF signaling by blocking the activity of its phosphatase that shuts off those signals. This finding helps explain the innervation deficits prominent in FD and reveals a unique role for Elp1 in the regulation of NGF-dependent TrkA activity.