Reliability and Usefulness of the SKILLCOURT as a Computerized Agility and Motor-Cognitive Testing Tool

INTRODUCTION

Agility and cognitive skills are essential in sports. However, standardized agility assessment tools often lack a reactive component, and cognitive assessments are performed using computer-based or paper-pencil tests. The SKILLCOURT is a newly developed testing and training device allowing agility and cognitive assessments in a more ecologically valid setting. This study evaluated the reliability and sensitivity to changes in performance (usefulness) of the SKILLCOURT technology.

METHODS

In a test-retest (7 d, 3 months) design, 27 healthy adults (♀ = 12; age, 24.9 ± 3.3 yr) performed three trials of agility (Star Run, Random Star Run) and motor-cognitive tests (1-back, 2-back, executive function). Absolute and relative intersession and intrasession reliability was determined using the intraclass coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV). A repeated-measures ANOVA was applied to identify potential learning effects between trials and test sessions. The smallest worthwhile change and typical error (TE) were calculated to investigate the intrasession and intersession usefulness of the tests.

RESULTS

Agility tests revealed good relative and absolute intersession (ICC, 83-0.89; CV, 2.7%-4.1%) and intrasession (ICC, 7-0.84; CV, 2.4%-5.5%) reliability accompanied by adequate usefulness from test day 3 onward. Motor-cognitive tests showed good relative intersession reliability (ICC, 0.7-0.77) with marginal CV values (4.8%-8.6%). Adequate intrasession reliability and usefulness can be assumed from test day 2 (1-back test, executive function test) and day 3 (2-back test) onward. For all tests, learning effects were observed within and compared with test day 1.

CONCLUSIONS

The SKILLCOURT is a reliable diagnostic tool for assessing reactive agility and motor-cognitive performance. Because of learning effects, sufficient familiarization with the tests is required when used for diagnostic purposes.

Fall arrest strategy training improves upper body response time compared to standard fall prevention exercise in older women: A randomized trial

INTRODUCTION

Exercise can decrease fall risk in older adults but less is known about training to reduce injury risk in the event a fall is unavoidable. The purpose of this study was to compare standard fall prevention exercises to novel Fall Arrest Strategy Training (FAST); exercises designed to improve upper body capacity to reduce fall-injury risk in older women.

METHOD

Forty women (mean age 74.5 years) participated in either Standard (n = 19) or FAST (n = 21) twice per week for 12 weeks. Both interventions included lower body strength, balance, walking practice, agility and education. FAST added exercises designed to enhance forward landing and descent control such as upper body strengthening, speed and practice of landing and descent on outstretched hands.

RESULTS

Both FAST and Standard significantly improved strength, mobility, balance, and fall risk factors from pre to post-intervention. There was a significant time by group interaction effect for upper body response time where FAST improved but Standard did not (p = 0.038).

DISCUSSION

FAST resulted in similar gains in factors that reduce fall risk as a standard fall prevention program; with the additional benefit of improving speed of arm protective responses; a factor that may help enhance landing position and reduce injury risks such as head impact during a forward fall.

Effects of Open Skill Visuomotor Choice Reaction Time Training on Unanticipated Jump-Landing Stability and Quality: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Adapting movements rapidly to unanticipated external stimuli is paramount for athletic performance and to prevent injuries. We investigated the effects of a 4-week open-skill choice-reaction training intervention on unanticipated jump-landings. Physically active adults (n = 37; mean age 27, standard deviation 2.7 years, 16 females, 21 males) were randomly allocated to one of two interventions or a control group (CG). Participants in the two intervention groups performed a 4-week visuomotor open skill choice reaction training, one for the upper and one for the lower extremities. Before and after the intervention, two different types of countermovement jumps with landings in split stance position were performed. In the (1) pre-planned condition, we informed the participants regarding the landing position (left or right foot in front position) before the jump. In the (2) unanticipated condition, this information was displayed after take-off (350–600 ms reaction time before landing). Outcomes were landing stability [peak vertical ground reaction force (pGRF) and time to stabilization (TTS)], and landing-related decision-making quality (measured by the number of landing errors). To measure extremity-specific effects, we documented the number of correct hits during the trained drills. A two-factorial (four repeated measures: two conditions, two time factors; three groups) ANCOVA was carried out; conditions = unanticipated versus pre-planned condition, time factors = pre versus post measurement, grouping variable = intervention allocation, co-variates = jumping time and self-report arousal. The training improved performance over the intervention period (upper extremity group: mean of correct choice reaction hits during 5 s drill: +3.0 hits, 95% confidence interval: 2.2–3.9 hits; lower extremity group: +1.6 hits, 0.6–2.6 hits). For pGRF (F = 8.4, p < 0.001) and landing errors (F = 17.1, p < 0.001) repeated measures effect occurred. Significantly more landing errors occurred within the unanticipated condition for all groups and measurement days. The effect in pGRF is mostly impacted by between-condition differences in the CG. No between-group or interaction effect was seen for these outcomes: pGRF (F = 0.4, p = 0.9; F = 2.3, p = 0.1) landing errors (F = 0.5, p = 0.6; F = 2.3, p = 0.1). TTS displayed a repeated measures (F = 4.9, p < 0.001, worse values under the unanticipated condition, improvement over time) and an interaction effect (F = 2.4, p = 0.03). Healthy adults can improve their choice reaction task performance by training. As almost no transfer to unanticipated landing successfulness or movement quality occurred, the effect seems to be task-specific. Lower-extremity reactions to unanticipated stimuli may be improved by more specific training regimens.

Does functional performance and upper body strength predict upper extremity reaction and movement time in older women?

BACKGROUND

Reaction time to initiate upper limb movement and movement time to place hands on the landing surface may be important factors in forward fall landing and impact, contributing to injury reduction. The aim was to investigate the relationship of physical function and upper body strength to upper limb reaction and movement time in older female participants.

METHODS

75 female participants (72 ± 8 yrs) performed 5 arm response trials. Reaction time (signal to initiation of movement), and movement time (initial movement to contact), were collected using 3D motion capture. Additional variables were: handgrip; sit-to-stand; shoulder flexion and elbow extension strength measured by hand-held dynamometry; one-legged balance; fall risk; and physical activity scores. Prediction variables for reaction and movement time were determined in separate backward selection multiple regression analyses. Significance was set at P < 0.05.

FINDINGS

Significant regression equations for RT (r² = 0.08, P = 0.013) found a relationship between stronger handgrip (Beta = -0.002) and faster reaction time, accounting for 8% variance. For movement time (r² = 0.06, P = 0.036) greater shoulder flexion strength (Beta = -0.04) was related to faster movement time, explaining 6% variance. Stronger SF strength was related to a decrease in MT by 4%.

DISCUSSION

A relationship between arm strength measures and faster upper body reaction and movement time was shown, with 10-20% higher strength associated with a 5% faster response time. Even though this was a relatively weak relationship, given that strength is a modifiable component this provides a potential avenue for future intervention efforts. This in turn could have an impact on forward fall landing and potential reduction of injury risk.

Fitness components associated with performance of a law enforcement physical employment standard in police cadets

BACKGROUND

The physical preparation of cadets for both PES and police job performance is a major concern for police organisations. Identifying fitness components associated with both PES performance and work performance can provide essential information for the physical training of police cadets. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the association of fitness components with performance of the Standardized Physical Abilities Test (SPAT), a new law enforcement PES.

METHODS

A sample of 41 police cadets was recruited to take part in this cross-sectional study. First, the participants were assessed using six fitness assessments (standing broad jump, medicine ball put, grip strength test, visuomotor reaction time (VMRT) test, modified agility T-test, and 600-meter run). In a second experiment, participants performed the SPAT.

RESULTS

Bivariate correlation analysis showed moderate to strong associations between each fitness assessment and SPAT performance. Based on stepwise multiple regression analysis, results at the VMRT test, the medicine ball put, and the agility T-test accounted for 66.0% of the variability in SPAT performance (R2 = 0.660; p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results suggest that exercise prescriptions for police cadets should focus on power, agility, and VMRT. Furthermore, our results show that performance in a PES can be estimated rather precisely based on low-cost fitness assessments. Therefore, such methodology could be used to develop fitness assessments specific to PES requirements.

Upper-Extremity Perceptual-Motor Training Improves Whole-Body Reactive Agility Among Elite Athletes With History of Sport-Related Concussion

CONTEXT

Sport-related concussion (SRC) elevates risk for subsequent injury, which may relate to impaired perceptual-motor processes that are potentially modifiable.

OBJECTIVE

To assess a possible upper-extremity (UE) training effect on whole-body (WB) reactive agility performance among elite athletes with history of SRC (HxSRC) and without such history of SRC.

DESIGN

Cohort study.

SETTING

Residential training center.

PARTICIPANTS

Elite athletes (12 males and 8 females), including 10 HxSRC and 10 without such history of SRC.

INTERVENTION

One-minute training sessions completed 2 to 3 times per week over a 3-week period involved verbal identification of center arrow direction for 10 incongruent and 10 congruent flanker test trials with simultaneous reaching responses to deactivate illuminated buttons.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Pretraining and posttraining assessments of UE and WB reactive responses included flanker test conflict effect (incongruent minus congruent reaction time) and WB lateral average asymmetry derived from reaction time, speed, acceleration, and deceleration in opposite directions. Discrimination was assessed by receiver operating characteristic analysis, and training effect was assessed by repeated-measures analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Pretraining discrimination between HxSRC and without such history of SRC was greatest for conflict effect ≥80 milliseconds and WB lateral average asymmetry ≥18%. Each athlete completed 6 training sessions, which improved UE mean reaction time from 767 to 646 milliseconds (P < .001) and reduced mean conflict effect from 96 to 53 milliseconds (P = .039). A significant group × trial interaction was evident for WB lateral average asymmetry (P = .004), which was reduced from 24.3% to 12.5% among those with HxSRC.

CONCLUSIONS

Suboptimal perceptual-motor performance may represent a subtle long-term effect of concussion that is modifiable through UE training, which appears to improve WB reactive capabilities.

Lower Extremity Open Skill Training Effects on Perception of Visual Stimuli, Cognitive Processing, and Performance

This study investigates if lower extremity open-skill training impacts perception and cognitive processing abilities or just influences task related motor abilities. Twenty-two participants (24.7 ± 2.4years; 11 males, 11 females) were randomly allocated either into the group that trained on a computerized device or to the control group. Prior to and following the 4-week study period, motor performance was assessed using drop jump, hexagon test, postural control and lower extremity choice reaction. Perception, cognitive processing and task inhibition were captured using validated neurocognitive tests. Repeated measurements analyses of co-variances (ANCOVAs) were performed. They revealed a time (before and after intervention) × group (training vs. control) effect on lower extremity choice reaction and hexagon (p < .05). No effects on group differences or between groups in cognitive performance were found. A detrimental effect of training on accuracy of task inhibition (lower percentage of correct inhibitions) was detected. Computerized open skill training affects specific movement patterns without increasing task-relevant cognitive or perceptual abilities. Indicated by the lower percentage of correct inhibitions, the training might further detrimentally influence the risk-taking behavior during choice reaction tasks.