The relationship between racial/ethnic identification and body ideal internalization, hair satisfaction, and skin tone satisfaction in black and black/white biracial women

Eurocentric physical characteristics, including a thin, tall physique, long straight hair, and fair skin, typify Western beauty standards. Past research indicates that for Black women, greater identification with one's racial/ethnic culture may buffer against internalizing Eurocentric beauty standards, specifically the thin ideal. Black/White Biracial women often experience different appearance pressures from each of their racial identity's sociocultural appearance ideals. Unfortunately, body image research is limited among Bi/Multiracial individuals. Participants were recruited online via Prime Panels, a high-quality data recruitment service provided by CloudResearch. Participants, M(SD)Age= 34.64 (12.85), self-reported their racial/ethnic identification, thin and thick/curvy ideal internalization, and hair and skin tone satisfaction. Using linear regression analyses, we assessed whether racial/ethnic identification buffered against monoracial Black (n = 317) and Black/White Biracial (n = 254) women's thin ideal internalization. Additionally, we assessed whether stronger racial/ethnic identity was associated with stronger thick/curvy ideal internalization and hair and skin tone satisfaction. Supporting hypotheses, greater racial/ethnic identification was associated with higher thick/curvy ideal internalization and hair and skin tone satisfaction among both Black and Biracial women. Contrary to hypotheses, greater racial/ethnic identification was not associated with lower thin ideal internalization in either group. Our results stress the need to use racially and culturally sensitive measurements of body image.

Skin tone ideologies, body shame, and sexual risk in Latinx young adults: The role of self-esteem

Latinx young adults in the U.S. experience significant disparities related to body image and sexual health. These challenges partly stem from the intersections of racism, ethnocentrism, and colorism perpetuated through Eurocentric beauty standards and norms surrounding sexuality. Despite the salience of skin tone within the Latinx community, the impact of skin tone ideologies on body shame and sexual risk remains unexplored. Addressing this gap, the present study examined the influence of skin tone ideologies (i.e., colorist attraction and skin tone self-concept) on sexual risk and body shame among a sample of 539 Latinx young adults. The study also explored the potential moderating effect of self-esteem on colorist attraction and skin tone self-concept on body shame and sexual risk. Results revealed that both colorist attraction and skin-tone self-concept were positively associated with body shame. Colorist attraction was positively associated with sexual risk, whereas skin tone self-concept was not associated. Furthermore, self-esteem moderated the positive significant association between skin tone self-concept and body shame, such that the association was only significant among Latinx young adults who reported mean and high levels of self-esteem; self-esteem did not moderate any of the other study's associations. These findings inform the development of tailored mental and sexual health interventions to reduce health disparities among Latinx young adults, considering the influence of skin tone socialization.

Into and Through the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The Impact of Colorism on the Criminalization of Black Girls

Colorism is a social construct privileging lighter-skinned people of color with proximity to European features over their darker-skinned counterparts. Despite the significant role in the lives of Black women and girls, colorism is an overlooked and understudied phenomenon, particularly regarding how it shapes their punishment and criminalization in schools. We conceptualize colorism as a social determinant of Black girls’ psychological well-being and outcomes. Darker-skinned Black girls face disproportionately severe school discipline, negative evaluation by teachers and peers, and are inundated with stereotypical messages that influence their sense of self—which increase vulnerability to trauma and psychological distress. Once inside the legal system, colorism plays a role in moving dark-skinned Black girls further into and through the pipeline at every stage of legal processing. The goal of the paper is to (1) highlight the role of colorism in the criminalization of Black girls, (2) identify school, forensic, and counseling/clinical psychology’s role in reducing the impact of colorism on Black girls’ lived experience as it relates to mental health and criminalization, and (3) identify psychological research and policy needs to mitigate the impact of colorism on Black girls’ life outcomes.

Measurement invariance of the Broad Conceptualization of Beauty Scale (BCBS) across Black, Hispanic, and White women in the United States

The Broad Conceptualization of Beauty Scale (BCBS) assesses the degree to which women perceive diverse appearances and internal qualities as being beautiful. Although the instrument is increasingly used in diverse national and linguistic contexts, no previous study has examined measurement invariance of the BCBS across racial groups. To rectify this, we asked 395 Black, 406 Hispanic, and 423 White women from the United States to complete the BCBS. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that a unidimensional model of BCBS scores had poor fit to the data in the total sample, but freely estimating error covariances between six pairs of items resulted in adequate fit. Additionally, full configural and scalar invariance was supported, but metric invariance was not, with further testing indicating that the item loading for one item differed across groups. Comparison of latent means indicated that all between-groups comparisons in BCBS scores were non-significant. However, medium-sized group differences in BCBS scores emerged once group differences in key demographics were controlled for. Overall, these results suggest that the BCBS largely achieves measurement invariance across Black, Hispanic, and White women in the United States, suggestive of similarity in how the construct of broad conceptualisation of beauty is understood and experienced.

Stay out of the Sun: Exploring African American College Women’s Thoughts on the Dynamics Between Colorism and Sun-related Behavior

Colorism—systematic intragroup discrimination based on skin color—uniquely affects African American women. Using a sequential mixed methods design, this study explored perceptions of colorism and sun-related behavior among African American women in college. Study 1, which included 14 in-depth interviews, revealed perceptions that lighter skin is mostly preferred among African American women and that this preference can influence sun-related behavior. Study 2 featured a self-administered questionnaire ( n = 187) based on interview commentary. Findings indicated an internalized status quo: participants deemed colorism prevalent among African Americans and believed that preferences for lighter skin influenced daily life, including sun avoidance. Personal skin color preferences were less clear than participants’ perceptions of others’ preferences. Results pinpointed a possible connection between colorism and sun-related behavior, unveiling interrelationships among internalized beliefs, subjective norms, and behavior. Understanding colorism’s entrenched role and the social context of sun-related decisions extends colorism research from the psychosocial realm to the behavioral. Implications can increase practitioners’ awareness of colorism, enabling interventions to promote appropriate health education and wellbeing among African American women.

It’s More Than Skin-Deep: Gendered Racial Microaggressions, Skin Tone Satisfaction, and Traumatic Stress Symptoms Among Black Women

This study examined the moderating effects of skin tone and skin tone satisfaction on the relations between gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress symptoms ( N = 237) among self-identified Black women between 18 and 50 years old. It was hypothesized that skin tone and skin tone satisfaction would moderate the relation between gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress, such that having a darker skin tone and lower levels of skin tone satisfaction would exacerbate the association between gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress symptoms. Results from two hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses indicated skin tone satisfaction significantly moderated the association between gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress symptoms, whereas skin tone did not. Findings suggest that skin tone satisfaction may play a bigger role in buffering or exacerbating the link between gendered racial microaggressions and mental health among Black women than skin tone alone. The results can inform future research and clinical practice on the important role of skin tone satisfaction in the link between gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress among Black women.

Prospective relationships between skin color satisfaction, body satisfaction, and binge eating in Black girls

Although it has been demonstrated that (a) body dissatisfaction and internalization of societal appearance standards contribute to disordered eating and (b) that internalization of societal appearance standards leads to decreased skin color satisfaction among Black women, it has not been established whether skin color dissatisfaction contributes to disordered eating among Black women or girls. The objective of the present study is to determine the influence of skin color satisfaction as a potential predictor for binge eating, and its effect through body image in Black girls during the vulnerable developmental period of adolescence. Using data from ten annual measurements in 1213 Black girls across ages 10-19, we sought to determine whether skin color satisfaction predicts Binge Eating Disorder (BED) risk and symptoms using pre-registered logistic and multilevel models. We found that lower skin color satisfaction at ages 13 and 14 significantly predicted greater odds of BED and lower skin color satisfaction at all ages predicted greater BED symptoms. Body satisfaction mediated the relationship between skin color satisfaction and BED symptoms. Our results suggest that skin color dissatisfaction is a novel component of body image for Black girls that is also related to binge eating.

The Phenotypic, Psychological, and Social Interplays of Skin Color and Developmental Outcomes among Mexican-origin Adolescents: Dismantling Systems of Racism and Oppression during Adolescence: Dismantling Systems of Racism and Oppression during Adolescence

Mexican-origin children from immigrant families are impacted by various systemic oppressions in life. The study seeks to examine how adolescents' developmental outcomes are associated with specific phenotypic, psychological, and social features of skin color, as manifested by skin tone, skin color satisfaction, and foreigner stress. By taking a holistic approach, we examine both positive and negative adjustment outcomes, including delinquency, resilience, and effortful control. Participants were 604 Mexican-origin adolescents aged between 11.08 and 15.29 (Mage  = 12.91, SD = 0.92) with at least one immigrant parent. The findings highlight the harm of foreigner stress and the benefit of skin color satisfaction in Mexican-origin adolescents' development of delinquency, resilience, and effortful control, especially for those with a darker skin color.

Racial Justice Activist Burnout of Women of Color in the United States: Practical Tools for Counselor Intervention

The pervasive racially hostile climate in society can bring severe mental health ramifications, such as burnout, to racial justice activists. For women of color (WOC), intersecting identities presents additional challenges. Due to the significant psychological impact burnout can have on WOC activists, counselors need the knowledge and tools to address this mental health issue. This article aims to provide counselors with a guide to working with WOC racial justice activists in the United States by outlining challenges faced by this population, health and mental health effects of burnout, and counseling interventions.

Igniting Collective Freedom: An Integrative Behavioral Model of Acceptance and Commitment Toward Black Liberation

Racism continues to reveal disastrous effects on the Black community. There exists no behavior-analytic literature with a specific focus on ending Black psychological suffering due to continual acts of violence perpetrated against the community. I present a behavioral model to promote Black psychological liberation, infusing preestablished frameworks of Black psychology and cultural healing practices with acceptance and commitment therapy. The model addresses behaviors observed within systemic and internalized racism.

Black Beauty: Womanist Consciousness as a Protective Factor in Black Women’s Body Image Satisfaction

Black American women are exposed to mainstream beauty standards, which may have implications for body image satisfaction. Given that beauty standards are often based on idealized depictions of White women’s physical features, scholars have called for body image research that extends beyond body type/weight (e.g., skin tone/hair) to better examine the experiences of Black women. In examining body image satisfaction and protective factors (e.g., ethnic identity), empirical research has yet to attend to these experiences at the intersection of race/ethnicity and gender. An online survey was used to examine whether womanist consciousness (WC) was a protective factor for Black American women ( N = 211). Findings indicated that after controlling for ethnic identity, higher womanist consciousness significantly predicted higher body satisfaction with historically racially defined features (e.g., skin tone/hair) and lower self-ideal discrepancy. Darker skin tone was linked to higher body importance and higher ethnic identity level. Last, increased frequency of wearing hair weaves was associated with lower body satisfaction while more frequently wearing Afrocentric hair styles/textures was associated with higher body satisfaction.

Discrimination, Skin Color Satisfaction, and Adjustment among Latinx American Youth

Race-related biases and discrimination and easily observable race-related characteristics, such as skin color, appear to go hand and hand, but it remains unclear how these factors work together to shape youth development. The current study addresses this gap by investigating skin color satisfaction as a mediator between perceptions of discrimination and adjustment. Data are from a cross-sectional sample of Latinx youth (N = 175; M_age = 12.86; 51.4% female; 86.9% US-born) who completed measures of foreigner-based objectification, peer discrimination, adult discrimination, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and the importance or value attributed to academic success. Evidence of significant indirect effects of skin color satisfaction in the links between foreigner-based objectification and self-esteem as well as academic importance was found. Skin color satisfaction did not mediate links between either peer or adult discrimination and self-esteem, depression, and academic importance. The results provide support that being perceived as a foreigner has negative implications for Latinx youth adjustment through skin color satisfaction. The present study expands understanding of how different forms of differential treatment may affect minoritized youth. Implications and future research ideas are discussed.

Skin-Tone Trauma: Historical and Contemporary Influences on the Health and Interpersonal Outcomes of African Americans

Empirical evidence demonstrates that racism is a source of traumatic stress for racial/ethnic minorities, particularly African Americans. Like race and racism, skin tone and experiences of colorism—an often overlooked form of discrimination that privileges lighter skinned over darker skinned individuals, although not uniformly, may also result in traumatic stress. This article proposes a new conceptual model of skin-tone trauma. The model depicts how historical and contemporary underpinnings of colorism lead to colorist incidents that may directly and indirectly, by eliciting traumatic stress reactions, lead to negative effects on the health and interpersonal relationships of African Americans. Key tenets of critical race and intersectionality theories are used to highlight the complexities of skin-tone trauma as a result of intersectional identities on the basis of existing social hierarchies. Last, we present suggestions for researchers, as well as recommendations and strategies for practitioners, to unmask “skin-tone wounds” and promote healing for individuals, families, and communities that suffer from skin-tone trauma. Skin-tone trauma should be acknowledged by researchers, scholars, and practitioners to better understand and assess the widespread scope of trauma in the African American community.

The Missing Link in Contemporary Health Disparities Research: A Profile of the Mental and Self-Rated Health of Multiracial Young Adults

This study compared the mental and self-rated health of monoracial and multiracial young adults using data from Wave 3 of the National Longitudinal Adolescent to Adult study. Our analytic sample consisted of 10,535 men and women ages 18-25 that self-identified as monoracial (Asian, Black, Native American, and White) or multiracial (White-Nonwhite and Nonwhite-Nonwhite). We find that when comparing aggregated racial groups, multiracials have poorer mental health than monoracials. However, differences emerge when multiracials are disaggregated into their two primary pairings of White-Nonwhite and Nonwhite-Nonwhite and compared to monoracials collectively and individually. We find that White-Nonwhites have poorer mental and self-rated health relative to monoracials generally and Whites specifically. In contrast, Nonwhite-Nonwhites have greater self-esteem and self-rated health than Whites as well as the aggregated monoracial group. Our findings highlight the complexities of examining multiracial health without researchers using consistent multiracial categories and reference groups. The results are discussed using three new perspectives that are introduced to explain health disparities between monoracial and multiracial persons.

Appropriated racial oppression: Implications for mental health in Whites and Blacks

Racism has been examined in its many forms. Scholarship regarding how individuals personally experience, cope with, and manage racial oppression is still developing. The term "appropriated racial oppression" reframes the construct "internalized racism" as a process whereby members of a group appropriate a dominant group's ideology, adapt their behavior, and perceive a subordinate status as deserved, natural, and inevitable. The expression of appropriated racial oppression is based on a variety of complicated and interacting processes, such as incentivized societal norms, critical consciousness, and racial socialization. We conceptualize appropriated racial oppression as a mediated process that yields both direct and indirect health outcomes for both non-dominant and dominant groups. The latter is critical because little research examines how racism affects dominant groups and their health. In this commentary, we examine two examples where appropriating racial oppression may confer both negative and adaptive outcomes. Although we highlight examples rooted in White and Black racial experiences, we briefly consider implications for intersectional and multiple marginalized identities as well. Future research recommendations for psychology, public health and interdisciplinary research are discussed.

Politics of Respectability, Colorism, and the Terms of Social Exchange in Family Research

In this article, we consider the utility of social exchange theory when centering the material and cultural realities of people and families of color. We draw on critical race and intersectionality scholarship to argue that this work challenges some of the core assumptions of social exchange theory (while reifying others) and offers novel avenues of inquiry and expanded foci for family researchers employing a social exchange framework. We illustrate our points by focusing on existing research and offering new empirical evidence on African Americans, yet we note that our revisioning has broader relevance for relationships between and within other groups and positionalities.

The Effects of System Justifying Beliefs on Skin-Tone Surveillance, Skin-Color Dissatisfaction, and Skin-Bleaching Behavior

In two studies with women living in India (Study 1, n = 177) and African American women in the United States (Study 2, n = 120), we investigated whether skin-tone surveillance, which theoretically is a manifestation of self-objectification, predicted greater skin-color dissatisfaction and greater skin-bleaching behavior. Given the existence of colorism in Indian and American societies, we expected that ideologies that rationalize and perpetuate the status quo would moderate the proposed relations. Results were consistent with objectification theory and system justification theory. The positive relation between skin-tone surveillance and skin-color dissatisfaction was weaker among women of color who more strongly (vs. weakly) endorsed system justifying ideologies, and the positive relation between skin-tone surveillance and skin-bleaching behavior was stronger among women of color who more strongly (vs. weakly) endorsed system justifying ideologies. Our results suggest that self-objectification theorists and researchers should consider culturally specific manifestations of self-objectification as well as protective and legitimating effects of system justifying ideologies. We encourage clinicians and policy makers to use public campaigns and individual-level interventions to target the norms and motivations underlying skin-bleaching. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index