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A State-of-the-Art Review on the Alternatives to Animal Testing for the Safety Assessment of Cosmetics. COSMETICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/cosmetics9050090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Almost a decade after the stipulated deadline in the 7th amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive, which bans the marketing of animal-tested cosmetics in the EU from 2013, animal experimentation for cosmetic-related purposes remains a topic of animated debate. Cosmetic industry continues to be scrutinised for the practice, despite its leading role in funding and adopting innovation in this field. This paper aims to provide a state-of-the-art review of the field on alternative testing methods, also known as New Approach Methodologies (NAMs), with the focus on assessing the safety of cosmetic ingredients and products. It starts with innovation drivers and global regulatory responses, followed by an extensive, endpoint-specific overview of accepted/prospective NAMs. The overview covers main developments in acute toxicity, skin corrosion/irritation, serious eye damage/irritation, skin sensitisation, repeated dose toxicity, reproductive toxicity/endocrine disruption, mutagenicity/genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, photo-induced toxicity, and toxicokinetics. Specific attention was paid to the emerging in silico methodology. This paper also provides a brief overview of the studies on public perception of animal testing in cosmetics. It concludes with a view that educating consumers and inviting them to take part in advocacy could be an effective tool to achieve policy changes, regulatory acceptance, and investment in innovation.
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Nikoloff N, Carranza Martin AC, Fabra MC, Furnus CC. Amitraz induced cytotoxic effect on bovine cumulus cells and impaired oocyte maturation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:29188-29199. [PMID: 33550522 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-12670-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of amitraz (AMZ) on the primary culture of bovine cumulus cells (CC) and oocyte nuclear maturation. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by assessing mitochondrial activity with the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Genotoxicity was estimated using the alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assay. Apoptosis was detected with the Annexin V-affinity assay. The in vitro maturation test was performed in bovine oocytes. To understand AMZ action, glutathione content, superoxide dismutase enzyme activity, and lipid peroxidation were evaluated in CC. Results showed that AMZ lethal concentration (LC 5024h) for bovine CC was 32.55 μg/mL (MTT assay). A 25 μg/mL induced late apoptosis and necrotic cells (p < 0.05); however, DNA damage was decreased at the same concentration (SCGE assay; p < 0.05). A decrease in metaphase II was observed at 25 μg/mL, and degenerate oocytes were observed at 15 and 25 μg/mL (p < 0.05). None of the oxidative stress parameters evaluated showed significant differences. This study contributes to a better understanding of AMZ in this model, suggesting its potential cytotoxicity and impact on bovine reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Nikoloff
- IGEVET - Instituto de Genética Veterinaria "Ing. Fernando N Dulout" (UNLP-CONICET LA PLATA), Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 60 y 118, B1904AMA, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana C Carranza Martin
- IGEVET - Instituto de Genética Veterinaria "Ing. Fernando N Dulout" (UNLP-CONICET LA PLATA), Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 60 y 118, B1904AMA, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana C Fabra
- IGEVET - Instituto de Genética Veterinaria "Ing. Fernando N Dulout" (UNLP-CONICET LA PLATA), Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 60 y 118, B1904AMA, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Cecilia C Furnus
- IGEVET - Instituto de Genética Veterinaria "Ing. Fernando N Dulout" (UNLP-CONICET LA PLATA), Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 60 y 118, B1904AMA, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Kim TW, Che JH, Yun JW. Use of stem cells as alternative methods to animal experimentation in predictive toxicology. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2019; 105:15-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2019.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2019] [Revised: 03/23/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Tessaro I, Modina SC, Crotti G, Franciosi F, Colleoni S, Lodde V, Galli C, Lazzari G, Luciano AM. Transferability and inter-laboratory variability assessment of the in vitro bovine oocyte fertilization test. Reprod Toxicol 2015; 51:106-13. [PMID: 25625651 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Revised: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The dramatic increase in the number of animals required for reproductive toxicity testing imposes the validation of alternative methods to reduce the use of laboratory animals. As we previously demonstrated for in vitro maturation test of bovine oocytes, the present study describes the transferability assessment and the inter-laboratory variability of an in vitro test able to identify chemical effects during the process of bovine oocyte fertilization. Eight chemicals with well-known toxic properties (benzo[a]pyrene, busulfan, cadmium chloride, cycloheximide, diethylstilbestrol, ketoconazole, methylacetoacetate, mifepristone/RU-486) were tested in two well-trained laboratories. The statistical analysis demonstrated no differences in the EC50 values for each chemical in within (inter-runs) and in between-laboratory variability of the proposed test. We therefore conclude that the bovine in vitro fertilization test could advance toward the validation process as alternative in vitro method and become part of an integrated testing strategy in order to predict chemical hazards on mammalian fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Tessaro
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia C Modina
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; Interdepartmental Research Centre for the Study of Biological Effects of Nano-Concentrations (CREBION), University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriella Crotti
- Avantea, Laboratory of Reproductive Technologies, 26100 Cremona, Italy
| | - Federica Franciosi
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Colleoni
- Avantea, Laboratory of Reproductive Technologies, 26100 Cremona, Italy
| | - Valentina Lodde
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Cesare Galli
- Avantea, Laboratory of Reproductive Technologies, 26100 Cremona, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche Veterinarie, Università di Bologna, 40064 Bologna, Italy; Fondazione Avantea, Cremona, Italy
| | - Giovanna Lazzari
- Avantea, Laboratory of Reproductive Technologies, 26100 Cremona, Italy; Fondazione Avantea, Cremona, Italy
| | - Alberto M Luciano
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; Interdepartmental Research Centre for the Study of Biological Effects of Nano-Concentrations (CREBION), University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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Pandir D. DNA damage in human germ cell exposed to the some food additives in vitro. Cytotechnology 2014; 68:725-33. [PMID: 25501537 DOI: 10.1007/s10616-014-9824-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of food additives has increased enormously in modern food technology but they have adverse effects in human healthy. The aim of this study was to investigate the DNA damage of some food additives such as citric acid (CA), benzoic acid (BA), brilliant blue (BB) and sunset yellow (SY) which were investigated in human male germ cells using comet assay. The sperm cells were incubated with different concentrations of these food additives (50, 100, 200 and 500 μg/mL) for 1 h at 32 °C. The results showed for CA, BA, BB and SY a dose dependent increase in tail DNA%, tail length and tail moment in human sperm when compared to control group. When control values were compared in the studied parameters in the treatment concentrations, SY was found to exhibit the highest level of DNA damage followed by BB > BA > CA. However, none of the food additives affected the tail DNA%, tail length and tail moment at 50 and 100 μg/mL. At 200 μg/mL of SY, the tail DNA% and tail length of sperm were 95.80 ± 0.28 and 42.56 ± 4.66, for BB the values were 95.06 ± 2.30 and 39.56 ± 3.78, whereas for BA the values were 89.05 ± 2.78 and 31.50 ± 0.71, for CA the values were 88.59 ± 6.45 and 13.59 ± 2.74, respectively. However, only the highest concentration of the used food additives significantly affected the studied parameters of sperm DNA. The present results indicate that SY and BB are more harmful than BA and CA to human sperm in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilek Pandir
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Science, Bozok University, 66100, Divanliyolu/Yozgat, Turkey.
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Bouvier d'Yvoire M, Bremer S, Casati S, Ceridono M, Coecke S, Corvi R, Eskes C, Gribaldo L, Griesinger C, Knaut H, Linge JP, Roi A, Zuang V. ECVAM and new technologies for toxicity testing. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 745:154-80. [PMID: 22437818 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-3055-1_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The development of alternative empirical (testing) and non-empirical (non-testing) methods to traditional toxicological tests for complex human health effects is a tremendous task. Toxicants may potentially interfere with a vast number of physiological mechanisms thereby causing disturbances on various levels of complexity of human physiology. Only a limited number of mechanisms relevant for toxicity ('pathways' of toxicity) have been identified with certainty so far and, presumably, many more mechanisms by which toxicants cause adverse effects remain to be identified. Recapitulating in empirical model systems (i.e., in vitro test systems) all those relevant physiological mechanisms prone to be disturbed by toxicants and relevant for causing the toxicity effect in question poses an enormous challenge. First, the mechanism(s) of action of toxicants in relation to the most relevant adverse effects of a specific human health endpoint need to be identified. Subsequently, these mechanisms need to be modeled in reductionist test systems that allow assessing whether an unknown substance may operate via a specific (array of) mechanism(s). Ideally, such test systems should be relevant for the species of interest, i.e., based on human cells or modeling mechanisms present in humans. Since much of our understanding about toxicity mechanisms is based on studies using animal model systems (i.e., experimental animals or animal-derived cells), designing test systems that model mechanisms relevant for the human situation may be limited by the lack of relevant information from basic research. New technologies from molecular biology and cell biology, as well as progress in tissue engineering, imaging techniques and automated testing platforms hold the promise to alleviate some of the traditional difficulties associated with improving toxicity testing for complex endpoints. Such new technologies are expected (1) to accelerate the identification of toxicity pathways with human relevance that need to be modeled in test methods for toxicity testing (2) to enable the reconstruction of reductionist test systems modeling at a reduced level of complexity the target system/organ of interest (e.g., through tissue engineering, use of human-derived cell lines and stem cells etc.), (3) to allow the measurement of specific mechanisms relevant for a given health endpoint in such test methods (e.g., through gene and protein expression, changes in metabolites, receptor activation, changes in neural activity etc.), (4) to allow to measure toxicity mechanisms at higher throughput rates through the use of automated testing. In this chapter, we discuss the potential impact of new technologies on the development, optimization and use of empirical testing methods, grouped according to important toxicological endpoints. We highlight, from an ECVAM perspective, the areas of topical toxicity, skin absorption, reproductive and developmental toxicity, carcinogenicity/genotoxicity, sensitization, hematopoeisis and toxicokinetics and discuss strategic developments including ECVAM's database service on alternative methods. Neither the areas of toxicity discussed nor the highlighted new technologies represent comprehensive listings which would be an impossible endeavor in the context of a book chapter. However, we feel that these areas are of utmost importance and we predict that new technologies are likely to contribute significantly to test development in these fields. We summarize which new technologies are expected to contribute to the development of new alternative testing methods over the next few years and point out current and planned ECVAM projects for each of these areas.
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Ettlin RA, Kuroda J, Plassmann S, Prentice DE. Successful drug development despite adverse preclinical findings part 1: processes to address issues and most important findings. J Toxicol Pathol 2010; 23:189-211. [PMID: 22272031 PMCID: PMC3234634 DOI: 10.1293/tox.23.189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 09/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Unexpected adverse preclinical findings (APFs) are not infrequently encountered during drug development. Such APFs can be functional disturbances such as QT prolongation, morphological toxicity or carcinogenicity. The latter is of particular concern in conjunction with equivocal genotoxicity results. The toxicologic pathologist plays an important role in recognizing these effects, in helping to characterize them, to evaluate their risk for man, and in proposing measures to mitigate the risk particularly in early clinical trials. A careful scientific evaluation is crucial while termination of the development of a potentially useful drug must be avoided. This first part of the review discusses processes to address unexpected APFs and provides an overview over typical APFs in particular classes of drugs. If the mode of action (MoA) by which a drug candidate produces an APF is known, this supports evaluation of its relevance for humans. Tailor-made mechanistic studies, when needed, must be planned carefully to test one or several hypotheses regarding the potential MoA and to provide further data for risk evaluation. Safety considerations are based on exposure at no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAEL) of the most sensitive and relevant animal species and guide dose escalation in clinical trials. The availability of early markers of toxicity for monitoring of humans adds further safety to clinical studies. Risk evaluation is concluded by a weight of evidence analysis (WoE) with an array of parameters including drug use, medical need and alternatives on the market. In the second part of this review relevant examples of APFs will be discussed in more detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Ettlin
- Ettlin Consulting Ltd., 14 Mittelweg, 4142 Muenchenstein,
Switzerland
| | - Junji Kuroda
- KISSEI Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 2320–1 Maki, Hotaka, Azumino,
Nagano 399-8305, Japan
| | - Stephanie Plassmann
- PreClinical Safety (PCS) Consultants Ltd., 7 Gartenstrasse, 4132
Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - David E. Prentice
- PreClinical Safety (PCS) Consultants Ltd., 7 Gartenstrasse, 4132
Muttenz, Switzerland
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Development of an in vitro test battery for assessing chemical effects on bovine germ cells under the ReProTect umbrella. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2008; 233:360-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2008.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2008] [Revised: 07/11/2008] [Accepted: 08/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Lilienblum W, Dekant W, Foth H, Gebel T, Hengstler JG, Kahl R, Kramer PJ, Schweinfurth H, Wollin KM. Alternative methods to safety studies in experimental animals: role in the risk assessment of chemicals under the new European Chemicals Legislation (REACH). Arch Toxicol 2008; 82:211-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-008-0279-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2007] [Accepted: 01/07/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Cordelli E, Fresegna AM, D'Alessio A, Eleuteri P, Spanò M, Pacchierotti F, Villani P. ReProComet: a new in vitro method to assess DNA damage in mammalian sperm. Toxicol Sci 2007; 99:545-52. [PMID: 17675332 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfm191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing request of chemical safety assessment demands for the validation of alternative methods to reduce the resort to animal experimentation. Methods that evaluate reproductive toxicity are among those requiring the largest use of animals. Presently, no validated in vitro alternative exists for the assessment of reproductive toxicity. Mammalian sperm are sensitive targets of DNA-reactive chemicals, which form premutagenic adducts. Here, we propose a new method based on comet assay to detect DNA damage induced by potential germ cell mutagens in bull sperm available from assisted reproduction practices. In somatic cells, chemical-induced adducts can be revealed by comet assay that detects DNA breaks produced during adduct repair. Mature sperm, however, are devoid of repair enzymes, and adducts are processed only after fertilization. For this reason, comet assay is not sensitive to detect DNA lesions induced in sperm by most chemicals. To overcome such limitation, we developed a modified comet assay based on the addition of a protein extract from HeLa cells to agarose-embedded sperm on microscopic slides. To test the method, sperm were treated in vitro with methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) or melphalan (MLP) and comet assay was conducted both with and without protein supplementation. No effect of MMS or MLP was detected without protein supplementation; on the contrary, a clear-cut dose-dependent effect was measured after addition of the cell extract. These results represent a proof of concept of a novel in vitro mutagenicity test on sperm that could offer a promising approach to complement previously validated in vivo germ cell genotoxicity assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Cordelli
- BAS-Section of Toxicology and Biomedical Sciences, ENEA CR Casaccia, Via Anguillarese 301-00123, Rome, Italy.
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